Introduction: Cross-cultural training programs are widely used to enhance cultural competence and cultural intelligence (CQ) across various professional fields. This narrative systematic literature review examines training strategies from various fields to identify the most effective approaches for application in sports. It addresses two key research questions: (1) What training components have been used in the delivery of these training programs? (2) What is their effectiveness in improving cultural intelligence and cultural competence?Methods: A systematic search was conducted to identify qualitative and quantitative studies published between 2000 and 2023. A total of 27 articles met the inclusion criteria. These articles describe the type of training program delivered, the activities performed, and their outcomes on participants’ cultural competence and/or cultural intelligence. Programs were categorized on delivery methods (didactic, experiential, or mixed) and information was extracted on training content, participants, duration, and timing.Results: Most programs used mixed delivery methods that combined lectures, educational tasks and experiential activities. They showed positive, though not always statistically significant, impact on participants’ cultural competence and/or cultural intelligence.Discussion: In sports, tailored programs that address culture- and sport-relevant knowledge, skills and communication may help coaches navigate cultural differences.

The aim of this study was to analyse handball coaches’ perceptions of self‐efficacy and recognition of training needs related to coaching competences according to their coaching experience, coach certification level and academic education. Two hundred and seven Portuguese handball coaches answered questionnaires that included a scale of self‐efficacy and another of recognition of training needs. Data analysis started with an exploratory factorial analysis with Maximum Likelihood Factoring and Oblimin rotation. From the factors obtained, a One‐way ANOVA and Tukey's post hoc multiple comparisons were applied. Coaches’ self‐efficacy revealed coaching competences related to: annual and multi‐annual planning; planning and guiding training and competition; coaching methodology; implementation of sport development projects and coach education and meta‐cognitive competences. Coaches’ recognition of training needs revealed four main areas: planning and guiding training and competition; multi‐annual planning; management of sports careers and coaching education and leadership. Although an independent relationship between coaches’ perceptions of self‐efficacy and training needs was confirmed, they perceived themselves as having competences and highlighted training needs in all areas. Coaches’ perceptions of self‐efficacy were influenced by their coach certification level, academic education and coaching experience. The study suggests that sport specificity within the social culture in addition to the precise sporting domain of action influence the perceptions of coaches about their self‐efficacy and training needs as related to coaching competences and, therefore, should be considered in the coach education curriculum.

Cultural intelligence is the capability of a person to adapt effectively to different cultures. This capability has been investigated in areas such as management, military, and education. However, there are no studies in sport referring to this capability. It is important to study cultural intelligence in sport because of the increased globalisation resulting from coaches’ and athletes’ migration across countries and clubs. This study aimed to develop the Cultural Intelligence in Sport (CQsport) and examine its factorial structure and psychometric properties; and examine coaches’ cultural intelligence and their perceived cross-cultural training needs. Participants were 209 football coaches either with or without international experience. Participants completed an online survey consisting of CQsport and a cross-cultural training needs questionnaire. We used a multigroup analysis, within the structural equation model (SEM) approach, to test group differences in the CQsport and performed a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) for comparisons across groups concerning cross-cultural training needs. Coaches with international experience rated themselves with more cultural intelligence in the sports context than coaches with no international experience on the metacognitive, cognitive, motivational and behavioural dimensions. Coaches with international experience also self-rated fewer training needs than coaches without international experience. This study represents the first attempt to examine football coaches’ cultural intelligence and their cross-cultural training needs.

The ability to interact and communicate effectively in different cultural contexts has never been more relevant for football coaches because cultural diversity in football has increased in the past decades. Yet, there is a reduced number of institutions that are currently offering cultural training to coaches, and it is unknown whether coaches feel the need for such training. This study aimed to explore the cross-cultural training needs of 115 football coaches with national and/or international experience (M = 13.4 years; SD = 8.53). To maximise recruitment reach, an online survey with open-ended questions was used followed by a qualitative thematic analysis. There were four master themes: cross-cultural training needs in the global football market; cross-cultural awareness is important in football; football-specific cultural training; and training by migrant coaches, no matter how. Most coaches perceived a benefit from cultural training in preparation for international appointments, but some felt that coaches already had cultural awareness because they manage individuals and adjust easily to different cultures. Preferences were shown for cross-cultural training delivered by migrant coaches and with a football-specific focus. This is the first study to explore the perceptions of football coaches about cross-cultural awareness and training needs and provides insights to providers of coach education.

The main focus of the present research is to investigate the media discourse about foreign coaches. This study explores the perspectives of host and donor countries through their media discourse, using the theoretical lens of established and outsiders. A media analysis was used to investigate how foreign coaches were represented in the media. Multiple sources were cross-referenced to capture the media and public opinions prior to, during and after national and international sport events. We found 257 media texts published between April 2012 and August 2014, in four different languages. The results showed the polarisation of the media discourse with foreign coaches either portrayed as instrumental for sport development and success, or stigmatised as unsuccessful mercenaries with no attachment to the host country. . These results highlight the importance of cultural awareness and media training especially for coaches dealing with the media of a host country.