Anthelmintic, ectoparasiticides (insecticides, acaricides), and antiprotozoal chemotherapeutic drugs target parasites. Chenopodium oil like alkaloids, arsenic compounds, cupric sulfate, nicotine, and cupric silicate were used to destroy nematodes. Unfortunately, these chemicals were less effective and less safe for livestock. The four major groups of broad-spectrum antinematodal compounds are macrocyclic lactones such as milbemycins/ivermectin, benzimidazole/pro-benzimidazole, tetrahydro pyrimidines such as morantel, pyrantel tartrate, and imidazothiazoles such as tetramisole and levamisole. The various factors responsible for gastrointestinal (GI) parasitism make it difficult to develop effective control measures, to the best of our knowledge. Hence, an effective strategy for the control of parasitic diseases that do not solely rely on anthelmintic therapies needs to be developed at the regional level, based on the epidemiology of the disease. This book chapter aims to elaborate on the various other ways to control parasitic diseases due to Anthelmintic drug resistance.

Objectives: Alveolar echinococcosis is caused by Echinococcus multilocularis, a parasite of zoo¬notic significance with a wide range of intermediate and final hosts, and the parasite survives suc¬cessfully in diversified conditions. Plentiful studies have been done to study the genetic structure of the population of the parasite and the level of intimate kinship using mitochondrial (mt) DNA. The present study was conducted to investigate the population structure, genetic variation, and phylogenetic relationship of various isolates of E. multiocularis submitted to GenBank worldwide. Sequences of mt genes (mt-cytochrome c oxidase (cox1), mt-NADH dehydrogenase (nad1)) of E. multilocularis were analyzed to achieve the set goals. Materials and Methods: A total of 275 and 124 gene sequences of mt-cox1 and mt-nad1 belong¬ing to E. multilocularis, respectively, were retrieved from the National Center for Biotechnology Information GenBank. The retrieved sequences were subjected to alignment with respective reference sequences using MEGA software. The PopArt software was used to establish medi¬an-joining networks, while DnaSp was used to calculate neutrality and diversity indices. MrBayes software was used to investigate the phylogenetic association between haplotypes based on Bayesian phylogeny. Results: Approximately 13 and 20 distinctive haplotypes of nad1 and cox1 genes, respectively, were observed in the present study. In both of the mt genes, diversity indices indicated low haplo¬type (mt-cox1 = 0.140; mt-nad1 = 0.374) and nucleotide (mt-cox1 = 0.00111; mt-nad1 = 0.00287) diversities. The values of Tajima’s D and Fu Fs for a population of both of the genes under study were found to be negative. Conclusion: This study is a maiden attempt to provide insights into the population structure and genetic variation of E. multilocularis on a global scale. However, it is suggested that to better understand the population structure and genetic diversity of E. multilocularis, more geographical locations and amplifications of full-length gene sequences should be considered, which could be helpful in widening the insights into the genetic diversity of E. multilocularis.

The current study was designed to check the anthelmintic activities of some local plants. Seeds of Amomum (A.) subulatum and Vitex (V.) negundo in different solvents were subjected to in vitro (adult motility assay; AMA and egg hatch assay; EHA) and in vivo (faecal egg count reduction test; FECRT) anthelmintic activity testing protocols using Haemonchus (H.) contortus as an experimental model. The results of AMA, EHA, and FECRT were statistically analysed through linear regression and Duncan multiple range test. In AMA test, at 50 mg mL^-1 concentration, the percent mortality of H. contortus was higher in A. subulatum than V. negundo, whereas, in EHA test, A. subulatum was proven better ovicidal (LC₅₀=14.2 µg mL^-1) than V. negundo (LC₅₀= 65.7405 µg mL^-1). The FECRT also indicated the better efficacy of A. subulatum than V. negundo against natural infection of gastrointestinal (GI) parasites. The crude powder of plants used in this study showed 29.6% to 57.7% anthelmintic. The reduction rate was found higher for A. subulatum (3 g kg^-1) as compared to V. negundo (7 g kg^-1). Reagrding efficacy analysis of solvents used for plants extract, ethyl acetate and chloroform were found better in increasing ovicidal activity in adult worms (in vitro testing), whereas, the crude aqueous methanol was found better than the crude powders in in vivo testing. It will be beneficial to document the indigenous knowledge to standard scientific procedures for their validation. This study will help to motivate the farmers to make a better choice of cultivation of the indigenous plants because of their varying efficacies as an alternative preventive approach against the GI parasitic infections.

Lice (Insecta: Pthiraptera) are common ectoparasite of buffalos (Bubalis bubalis) causing huge economic loss. An epidemiological survey was conducted in selected tehsils (administrative division) of Faisalabad district to determine the prevalence of lice infestation and the efficacy of cypermethrin (CYP) against lice infestation in buffalos. To determine the efficacy of CYP, 40 lice-infested buffaloes were divided into two groups i.e. drug-treated group and control group (each group contains 20 animals). Cypermethrin drug was used as pour-on at day 0 and lice counts were conducted on days 0, 7, 21, 35, 49, and 63 from predilection sites of each animal. Only one species of sucking louse Haematopinus tuberculatus was found in buffalo population of Faisalabad district. The overall prevalence of lice infestation was 37.76%. The variable like age and sex showed significant (P<0.05) variation of lice infestation while breed showed insignificant variation. Among extrinsic factors, seasons, floor pattern, and feeding system showed significant association (P<0.05) with lice infestation, while animal keeping as free or tethered and tehsils showed an insignificant association. On day 7, 100% effective results were obtained while 99.6% at day 21 and 100% from day 35 till day 63. No clinical adverse reaction was observed during this trial and cypermethrin was found efficacious. Based on these results it can be concluded that cypermethrin is an effective drug against lice infestation.

Trichomoniasis is a venereally transmitted protozoan disease of bovines that causes vaginitis, early embryonic death and second-trimester abortion, increasing the risk of infertility. Despite its economic and health significance, it has been misdiagnosed or under-reported in Pakistan. This study aimed to describe the molecular epidemiology of Trichomonas in cattle and buffaloes on selected farms in Punjab, Pakistan. Preputial and vaginal secretions (600 samples) were collected from suspected animals across eight districts by purposive sampling, together with placentomes from aborted fetuses. Samples were cultured in InPouch TF kits, and culture-positive samples were subjected to DNA extraction and PCR. Blood samples were tested by latex agglutination. The associations of natural mating, breeding practices, infrastructure and veterinary services with infection were analysed statistically. Overall prevalence was 16.67% (100/600; 95% CI 13.9-19.9%), and differed significantly by district (chi-square = 27.60, df = 7, p = 0.0003), ranging from 0% in Burewala to 30.0% in Bahawalnagar. Natural mating was strongly associated with infection (odds ratio 12.43, 95% CI 6.32-24.46, p < 0.0001) compared with artificial insemination. These results link prevalence to local risk factors and can support control strategies; artificial insemination should be preferred over natural mating.