Glucocorticoid (GC) signaling synchronizes the circadian rhythm of individual peripheral cells and induces the expression of circadian genes, including Period1 (Per1) and Period2 (Per2). However, no GC response element (GRE) has been reported in the Per2 promoter region. Here we report the molecular mechanisms of Per2 induction by GC signaling and its relevance to the regulation of circadian timing. We found that GC prominently induced Per2 expression and delayed the circadian phase. The overlapping GRE and E-box (GE2) region in the proximal Per2 promoter was responsible for GC-mediated Per2 induction. The GRE in the Per2 promoter was unique in that brain and muscle ARNT-like protein-1 (BMAL1) was essential for GC-induced Per2 expression, whereas other GRE-containing promoters, such as Per1 and mouse mammary tumor virus, responded to dexamethasone in the absence of BMAL1. This specialized regulatory mechanism was mediated by BMAL1-dependent binding of the GC receptor to GRE in Per2 promoter. When Per2 induction was abrogated by the mutation of the GRE or E-box, the circadian oscillation phase failed to be delayed compared with that of the wild-type. Therefore, the current study demonstrates that the rapid Per2 induction mediated by GC is crucial for delaying the circadian rhythm.

Ammonia detoxification is essential for physiological well-being, and the urea cycle in liver plays a predominant role in ammonia disposal. Nobiletin (NOB), a natural dietary flavonoid, is known to exhibit various physiological efficacies. In the current study, we investigated a potential role of NOB in ammonia control and the underlying cellular mechanism. C57BL/6 mice were fed with regular chow (RC), high-fat (HFD) or high-protein diet (HPD) and treated with either vehicle or NOB. Serum and/or urine levels of ammonia and urea were measured. Liver expression of genes encoding urea cycle enzymes and C/EBP transcription factors was determined over the circadian cycle. Luciferase reporter assays were carried out to investigate function of CCAAT consensus elements on the carbamoyl phosphate synthetase (Cps1) gene promoter. A circadian clock-deficient mouse mutant, Clock ^Δ19/Δ19 , was utilized to examine a requisite role of the circadian clock in mediating NOB induction of Cps1. NOB was able to lower serum ammonia levels in mice fed with RC, HFD or HPD. Compared with RC, HFD repressed the mRNA and protein expression of Cps1, encoding the rate-limiting enzyme of the urea cycle. Interestingly, NOB rescued CPS1 protein levels under the HFD condition via induction of the transcription factors C/EBPα and C/EBPβ. Expression of other urea cycle genes was also decreased by HFD relative to RC and again restored by NOB to varying degrees, which, in conjunction with Cps1 promoter reporter analysis, suggested a C/EBP-dependent mechanism for the co-induction of urea cycle genes by NOB. In comparison, HPD markedly increased CPS1 levels relative to RC, yet NOB did not further enrich CPS1 to a significant extent. Using the circadian mouse mutant Clock ^Δ19/Δ19 , we also showed that a functional circadian clock, known to modulate C/EBP and CPS1 expression, was required for NOB induction of CPS1 under the HFD condition. NOB, a dietary flavonoid, exhibits a broad activity in ammonia control across varying diets, and regulates urea cycle function via C/EBP-and clock-dependent regulatory mechanisms.

Extended food consumption during the rest period perturbs the phase relationship between circadian clocks in the periphery and the brain, leading to adverse health effects. Beyond the liver, how metabolic organs respond to timed-hypocaloric diet is largely unexplored. We investigated how feeding schedules impact circadian gene expression in white and brown adipose tissues (eWAT and BAT) compared to liver and hypothalamus. We restricted food to either daytime or nighttime in C57BL/6J male mice, with or without caloric restriction. Unlike liver and eWAT, rhythmic clock genes in the BAT remained insensitive to feeding time, similar to hypothalamus. We uncovered an internal split within the BAT in response to conflicting environmental cues, displaying inverted oscillations on a subset of metabolic genes without modifying its local core circadian machinery. Integrating tissue-specific responses on circadian transcriptional networks with metabolic outcomes may help elucidate the mechanism underlying the health burden of eating at unusual times.

The mammalian circadian clock is an endogenous biological timer comprised of transcriptional/translational feedback loops of clock genes. Bmal1 encodes an indispensable transcription factor for the generation of circadian rhythms. Here, we report a new circadian mutant mouse from gene-trapped embryonic stem cells harboring a C-terminus truncated Bmal1 (Bmal1^GTΔC) allele. The homozygous mutant (Bmal1^GTΔC/GTΔC) mice immediately lost circadian behavioral rhythms under constant darkness. The heterozygous (Bmal1^+/GTΔC) mice displayed a gradual loss of rhythms, in contrast to Bmal1^+/- mice where rhythms were sustained. Bmal1^GTΔC/GTΔC mice also showed arrhythmic mRNA and protein expression in the SCN and liver. Lack of circadian reporter oscillation was also observed in cultured fibroblast cells, indicating that the arrhythmicity of Bmal1^GTΔC/GTΔC mice resulted from impaired molecular clock machinery. Expression of clock genes exhibited distinct responses to the mutant allele in Bmal1^+/GTΔC and Bmal1^GTΔC/GTΔC mice. Despite normal cellular localization and heterodimerization with CLOCK, overexpressed BMAL1^GTΔC was unable to activate transcription of Per1 promoter and BMAL1-dependent CLOCK degradation. These results indicate that the C-terminal region of Bmal1 has pivotal roles in the regulation of circadian rhythms and the Bmal1^GTΔC mice constitute a novel model system to evaluate circadian functional mechanism of BMAL1.