The terrestrial hydrological cycle is strongly influenced by transpiration—water loss through the stomatal pores of leaves. In this report we present studies showing that the energy content of radiation absorbed by the leaf influences stomatal control of transpiration. This observation is at odds with current concepts of how stomata sense and control transpiration, and we suggest an alternative model. Specifically, we argue that the steady-state water potential of the epidermis in the intact leaf is controlled by the difference between the radiation-controlled rate of water vapor production in the leaf interior and the rate of transpiration. Any difference between these two potentially large fluxes is made up by evaporation from (or condensation on) the epidermis, causing its water potential to pivot around this balance point. Previous work established that stomata in isolated epidermal strips respond by opening with increasing (and closing with decreasing) water potential. Thus, stomatal conductance and transpiration rate should increase when there is condensation on (and decrease when there is evaporation from) the epidermis, thus tending to maintain homeostasis of epidermal water potential. We use a model to show that such a mechanism would have control properties similar to those observed with leaves. This hypothesis provides a plausible explanation for the regulation of leaf and canopy transpiration by the radiation load and provides a unique framework for studies of the regulation of stomatal conductance by CO ₂ and other factors.

We systematically analyzed a developmental gradient of the third maize (Zea mays) leaf from the point of emergence into the light to the tip in 10 continuous leaf slices to study organ development and physiological and biochemical functions. Transcriptome analysis, oxygen sensitivity of photosynthesis, and photosynthetic rate measurements showed that the maize leaf undergoes a sink-to-source transition without an intermediate phase of C₃ photosynthesis or operation of a photorespiratory carbon pump. Metabolome and transcriptome analysis, chlorophyll and protein measurements, as well as dry weight determination, showed continuous gradients for all analyzed items. The absence of binary on–off switches and regulons pointed to a morphogradient along the leaf as the determining factor of developmental stage. Analysis of transcription factors for differential expression along the leaf gradient defined a list of putative regulators orchestrating the sink-to-source transition and establishment of C₄ photosynthesis. Finally, transcriptome and metabolome analysis, as well as enzyme activity measurements, and absolute quantification of selected metabolites revised the current model of maize C₄ photosynthesis. All data sets are included within the publication to serve as a resource for maize leaf systems biology.

Background and Aims Leaf gas exchange is influenced by stomatal size, density, distribution between the leaf adaxial and abaxial sides, as well as by pore dimensions. This study aims to quantify which of these traits mainly underlie genetic differences in operating stomatal conductance (g_s) and addresses possible links between anatomical traits and regulation of pore width. Methods Stomatal responsiveness to desiccation, g_s-related anatomical traits of each leaf side and estimated g_s (based on these traits) were determined for 54 introgression lines (ILs) generated by introgressing segments of Solanum pennelli into the S. lycopersicum ‘M82’. A quantitative trait locus (QTL) analysis for stomatal traits was also performed. Key Results A wide genetic variation in stomatal responsiveness to desiccation was observed, a large part of which was explained by stomatal length. Operating g_s ranged over a factor of five between ILs. The pore area per stomatal area varied 8-fold among ILs (2–16 %), and was the main determinant of differences in operating g_s between ILs. Operating g_s was primarily positioned on the abaxial surface (60–83 %), due to higher abaxial stomatal density and, secondarily, to larger abaxial pore area. An analysis revealed 64 QTLs for stomatal traits in the ILs, most of which were in the direction of S. pennellii. Conclusions The data indicate that operating and maximum g_s of non-stressed leaves maintained under stable conditions deviate considerably (by 45–91 %), because stomatal size inadequately reflects operating pore area (R² = 0·46). Furthermore, it was found that variation between ILs in both stomatal sensitivity to desiccation and operating g_s is associated with features of individual stoma. In contrast, genotypic variation in g_s partitioning depends on the distribution of stomata between the leaf adaxial and abaxial epidermis.

Plant phenotyping is an emerging discipline in plant biology. Quantitative measurements of functional and structural traits help to better understand gene–environment interactions and support breeding for improved resource use efficiency of important crops such as bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Here we provide an overview of state-of-the-art phenotyping approaches addressing three aspects of resource use efficiency in plants: belowground roots, aboveground shoots and transport/allocation processes. We demonstrate the capacity of high-precision methods to measure plant function or structural traits non-invasively, stating examples wherever possible. Ideally, high-precision methods are complemented by fast and high-throughput technologies. High-throughput phenotyping can be applied in the laboratory using automated data acquisition, as well as in the field, where imaging spectroscopy opens a new path to understand plant function non-invasively. For example, we demonstrate how magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can resolve root structure and separate root systems under resource competition, how automated fluorescence imaging (PAM fluorometry) in combination with automated shape detection allows for high-throughput screening of photosynthetic traits and how imaging spectrometers can be used to quantify pigment concentration, sun-induced fluorescence and potentially photosynthetic quantum yield. We propose that these phenotyping techniques, combined with mechanistic knowledge on plant structure–function relationships, will open new research directions in whole-plant ecophysiology and may assist breeding for varieties with enhanced resource use efficiency varieties.