Insulin action in the brain controls metabolism and brain function, which is linked to proper mitochondrial function. Conversely, brain insulin resistance associates with mitochondrial stress and metabolic and neurodegenerative diseases. In the present study, we aimed to decipher the impact of hypothalamic insulin action on mitochondrial stress responses, function and metabolism. To investigate the crosstalk of insulin action and mitochondrial stress responses (MSR), namely the mitochondrial unfolded protein response (UPRmt) and integrated stress response (ISR), qPCR, western blotting, and mitochondrial activity assays were performed. These methods were used to analyze the hypothalamic cell line CLU183 treated with insulin in the presence or absence of the insulin receptor as well as in mice fed a high fat diet (HFD) for three days and STZ-treated mice without or with insulin therapy. Intranasal insulin treatment was used to investigate the effect of acute brain insulin action on metabolism and mitochondrial stress responses. Acute HFD feeding reduces hypothalamic mitochondrial stress responsive gene expression of Atf4, Chop, Hsp60, Hsp10, ClpP, and Lonp1 in C57BL/6N mice. We show that insulin via ERK activation increases the expression of MSR genes in vitro as well as in the hypothalamus of streptozotocin-treated mice. This regulation propagates mitochondrial function by controlling mitochondrial proteostasis and prevents excessive autophagy under serum deprivation. Finally, short-term intranasal insulin treatment activates MSR gene expression in the hypothalamus of HFD-fed C57BL/6N mice and reduces food intake and body weight development. We define hypothalamic insulin action as a novel master regulator of MSR, ensuring proper mitochondrial function by controlling mitochondrial proteostasis and regulating metabolism.

Insulin receptor signaling is crucial for white adipose tissue (WAT) function. Consequently, lack of insulin receptor (IR) in WAT results in a diabetes-like phenotype. Yet, causes for IR downregulation in WAT of patients with diabetes are not well understood. By using multiple mouse models of obesity and insulin resistance, we identify a common downregulation of IR with a reduction of mRNA expression of selenoproteins Txnrd3 , Sephs2 , and Gpx3 in gonadal adipose tissue. Consistently, GPX3 is also decreased in adipose tissue of insulin-resistant and obese patients. Inducing Gpx3 expression via selenite treatment enhances IR expression via activation of the transcription factor Sp1 in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes and improves adipocyte differentiation and function. Feeding mice a selenium-enriched high-fat diet alleviates diet-induced insulin resistance with increased insulin sensitivity, decreased tissue inflammation, and elevated IR expression in WAT. Again, IR expression correlated positively with Gpx3 expression, a phenotype that is also conserved in humans. Consequently, decreasing GPx3 using siRNA technique reduced IR expression and insulin sensitivity in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. Overall, our data identify GPx3 as a potentially novel regulator of IR expression and insulin sensitivity in adipose tissue.

Insulin regulates mitochondrial function, thereby propagating an efficient metabolism. Conversely, diabetes and insulin resistance are linked to mitochondrial dysfunction with a decreased expression of the mitochondrial chaperone HSP60. The aim of this investigation was to determine the effect of a reduced HSP60 expression on the development of obesity and insulin resistance. Control and heterozygous whole-body HSP60 knockout (Hsp60^+/-) mice were fed a high-fat diet (HFD, 60% calories from fat) for 16 weeks and subjected to extensive metabolic phenotyping. To understand the effect of HSP60 on white adipose tissue, microarray analysis of gonadal WAT was performed, ex vivo experiments were performed, and a lentiviral knockdown of HSP60 in 3T3-L1 cells was conducted to gain detailed insights into the effect of reduced HSP60 levels on adipocyte homeostasis. Male Hsp60^+/- mice exhibited lower body weight with lower fat mass. These mice exhibited improved insulin sensitivity compared to control, as assessed by Matsuda Index and HOMA-IR. Accordingly, insulin levels were significantly reduced in Hsp60^+/- mice in a glucose tolerance test. However, Hsp60^+/- mice exhibited an altered adipose tissue metabolism with elevated insulin-independent glucose uptake, adipocyte hyperplasia in the presence of mitochondrial dysfunction, altered autophagy, and local insulin resistance. We discovered that the reduction of HSP60 in mice predominantly affects adipose tissue homeostasis, leading to beneficial alterations in body weight, body composition, and adipocyte morphology, albeit exhibiting local insulin resistance.

Mitochondria are critical for hypothalamic function and regulators of metabolism. Hypothalamic mitochondrial dysfunction with decreased mitochondrial chaperone expression is present in type 2 diabetes (T2D). Recently, we demonstrated that a dysregulated mitochondrial stress response (MSR) with reduced chaperone expression in the hypothalamus is an early event in obesity development due to insufficient insulin signaling. Although insulin activates this response and improves metabolism, the metabolic impact of one of its members, the mitochondrial chaperone heat shock protein 10 (Hsp10), is unknown. Thus, we hypothesized that a reduction of Hsp10 in hypothalamic neurons will impair mitochondrial function and impact brain insulin action. Therefore, we investigated the role of chaperone Hsp10 by introducing a lentiviral-mediated Hsp10 knockdown (KD) in the hypothalamic cell line CLU-183 and in the arcuate nucleus (ARC) of C57BL/6N male mice. We analyzed mitochondrial function and insulin signaling utilizing qPCR, Western blot, XF96 Analyzer, immunohistochemistry, and microscopy techniques. We show that Hsp10 expression is reduced in T2D mice brains and regulated by leptin in vitro. Hsp10 KD in hypothalamic cells induced mitochondrial dysfunction with altered fatty acid metabolism and increased mitochondria-specific oxidative stress resulting in neuronal insulin resistance. Consequently, the reduction of Hsp10 in the ARC of C57BL/6N mice caused hypothalamic insulin resistance with acute liver insulin resistance.

The intake of high-fat diets (HFDs) containing large amounts of saturated long-chain fatty acids leads to obesity, oxidative stress, inflammation, and insulin resistance. The trace element selenium, as a crucial part of antioxidative selenoproteins, can protect against the development of diet-induced insulin resistance in white adipose tissue (WAT) by increasing glutathione peroxidase 3 (GPx3) and insulin receptor (IR) expression. Whether selenite (Se) can attenuate insulin resistance in established lipotoxic and obese conditions is unclear. We confirm that GPX3 mRNA expression in adipose tissue correlates with BMI in humans. Cultivating 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes in palmitate-containing medium followed by Se treatment attenuates insulin resistance with enhanced GPx3 and IR expression and adipocyte differentiation. However, feeding obese mice a selenium-enriched high-fat diet (SRHFD) only resulted in a modest increase in overall selenoprotein gene expression in WAT in mice with unaltered body weight development, glucose tolerance, and insulin resistance. While Se supplementation improved adipocyte morphology, it did not alter WAT insulin sensitivity. However, mice fed a SRHFD exhibited increased insulin content in the pancreas. Overall, while selenite protects against palmitate-induced insulin resistance in vitro, obesity impedes the effect of selenite on insulin action and adipose tissue metabolism in vivo.