The emergence of antimicrobial resistance among foodborne pathogens has intensified the search for alternative biocontrol strategies. Among these, essential oils (EOs) and bacteriophages have gained increasing attention, due to their natural origin and antimicrobial potential. This narrative review investigates their individual and combined use as innovative tools for improving food safety. We discuss the mechanisms of action, current food applications, and regulatory or technical limitations associated with both EOs and phages. Particular emphasis is placed on their complementary characteristics, which may enhance efficacy when used together. An in-depth analysis of five key studies investigating synergistic EO–phage combinations against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Salmonella Typhimurium is presented. These studies, conducted in both in vitro and food-based systems, reveal that antimicrobial synergy is often dose- and temperature-dependent. Optimized combinations lead to enhanced bacterial reduction and reduced resistance development. However, several challenges remain, including sensory alterations in food products, phage inactivation by EO compounds, and host cell destruction at high EO doses. The review concludes that while EOs and phages face limitations when applied independently, their strategic combination shows substantial promise. Future research should focus on formulation development, delivery systems, and regulatory alignment to unlock their full synergistic potential.

Food safety is a paramount public health concern, particularly with the rise of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria. This systematic review explores the efficacy of bacteriophages as a novel and environmentally sustainable approach to controlling multi-resistant and non-resistant bacterial pathogens in animal-derived food products. Following PRISMA guidelines, data from multiple studies were synthesized to evaluate bacteriophage applications across diverse food matrices, including beef, poultry, seafood, and dairy. The findings highlight significant variability in bacteriophage efficacy, influenced by factors such as food matrix properties, bacterial strains, and application methods. Phage cocktails and their combination with thermal treatments consistently demonstrated superior bacterial reduction compared to single-phage applications, which yielded variable results. Interestingly, the absence of a clear dose-response relationship underscores the need for a more detailed understanding of phage-host interactions and environmental influences. This review addresses a critical gap in the literature by advocating for matrix-specific, targeted phage applications over generalized approaches. Additionally, it underscores the transformative potential of bacteriophages as sustainable alternatives to chemical disinfectants in modern food safety practices. These insights provide a framework for future research aimed at optimizing bacteriophage efficacy and scaling their application in real-world food production systems.

Introduction: Bacteriophages are emerging as viable food safety tools, yet their global implementation is hindered by regulatory fragmentation and a lack of harmonized data standards. This review addresses the gap between scientific maturity and governance readiness by evaluating manufacturing quality, safety requirements, and international oversight frameworks. Methods: A narrative review was conducted through a structured search of databases including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar (up to December 2025). We analyzed scientific research and publicly available regulatory documents from agencies such as the FDA, EFSA, USDA, Health Canada, and FSANZ to identify authorization routes and manufacturing standards. Results: Commercial phage products are primarily approved as processing aids in jurisdictions like the United States, Canada, and Australia/New Zealand. We identified convergent technical requirements across these regions, including genomic integrity (absence of toxins and antimicrobial resistance genes), purity, potency, and matrix-validated efficacy. However, significant gaps remain in unified terminology, environmental risk assessment, and post-market monitoring for resistance emergence. Conclusions: To facilitate global adoption, a One Health-oriented governance cycle is proposed. This includes establishing interoperable phage seed banks, standardized dossier formats, and adaptive lifecycle controls (phagovigilance) to ensure long-term efficacy and public trust.

Background/Objectives: The rapid emergence of antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli in food and clinical environments necessitates new, clean-label antimicrobials. This study assessed eight Greek native essential oils—oregano, thyme, dittany, rosemary, peppermint, lavender, cistus and helichrysum—for activity against six genetically and phenotypically diverse E. coli strains (reference, pNorm, mecA, mcr-1, blaOXA and O157:H7). We aimed to identify oils with broad-spectrum efficacy and clarify the chemical constituents responsible. Methods: Disk-diffusion assays measured inhibition zones at dilutions from 50% to 1.56% (v/v). MIC and MBC values were determined by broth microdilution. GC–MS profiling identified dominant components, and Spearman rank-order correlations (ρ) linked composition to activity. Shapiro–Wilk tests (W = 0.706–0.913, p ≤ 0.002) indicated non-normal data, so strain comparisons used Kruskal–Wallis one-way ANOVA with Dunn’s post hoc and Bonferroni correction. Results: Oregano, thyme and dittany oils—rich in carvacrol and thymol—exhibited the strongest activity, with MIC/MBC ≤ 0.0625% (v/v) against all strains and inhibition zones > 25 mm at 50%. No strain-specific differences were detected (H = 0.30–3.85; p = 0.998–0.571; p_adj = 1.000). Spearman correlations confirmed that carvacrol and thymol content strongly predicted efficacy (ρ = 0.527–0.881, p < 0.001). Oils dominated by non-phenolic terpenes (rosemary, peppermint, lavender, cistus, helichrysum) showed minimal or no activity. Conclusions: Phenolic-rich EOs maintain potent, strain-independent antimicrobial effects—including against multidrug-resistant and O157:H7 strains—via a multi-target mode that overcomes classical resistance. Their low-dose efficacy and GRAS status support their use as clean-label food preservatives or adjuncts to antibiotics or bacteriophages to combat antimicrobial resistance.

This study examines at the prevalence and spread of Hepatitis A Virus (HAV) and norovirus GI/GII in local and imported food products in Greece over a five-year period (2019–2024). A total of two hundred sixty-six food samples were evaluated using obligatory inspections and virus detection procedures, including 202 for Hepatitis A and 64 for Norovirus. High-risk categories analyzed were vegetables [138 (HAV), 17 (NoV)], fruits [16 (HAV), 7 (NoV)], soft fruits/berries [37 (HAV), 31 (NoV)], processed meals [4 (HAV), 4 (NoV)], and animal-based products [1 (HAV), 5 (NoV)]. Viral RNA was isolated using QIAamp Viral RNA Mini Kit and detected using established RT-qPCR procedures that met ISO requirements for high sensitivity and reproducibility. The results demonstrated HAV contamination mostly in vegetables (4.35% positive rate), with sporadic findings in other categories. Norovirus GI/GII was detected primarily in soft fruits/berries, with a category-specific positive rate of 6.45%. A temporal study revealed that HAV peaks in 2020, while Norovirus contaminations were detected in 2021 and 2024. The findings highlight the important need to incorporate viral testing into routine food safety procedures, especially for high-risk product categories. This study establishes a basic framework for public health initiatives that address gaps in foodborne virus surveillance in Greece. The study’s ramifications extend to global efforts to monitor and reduce foodborne virus contamination, pushing for higher regulatory requirements and targeted preventative actions.