Bisphenol A, a well-known endocrine-disrupting chemical, has been replaced with its analogs bisphenol S (BPS) and bisphenol F (BPF) over the last decade due to health concerns. BPS and BPF are present in relatively high concentrations in different products, such as food products, personal care products, and sales receipts. Both BPS and BPF have similar structural and chemical properties to BPA; therefore, considerable scientific efforts have investigated the safety of their exposure. In this review, we summarize the findings of relevant epidemiological studies investigating the association between urinary concentrations of BPS and/or BPF with the incidence of obesity or diabetes. The results showed that BPS and BPF were detected in many urinary samples at median concentrations ranging from 0.03 to 0.4 µg·L⁻¹. At this exposure level, BPS median urinary concentrations (0.4 µg·L⁻¹) were associated with the development of obesity. At a lower exposure level (0.1–0.03 µg·L⁻¹), two studies showed an association with developing diabetes. For BPF exposure, only one study showed an association with obesity. However, most of the reported studies only assessed BPS exposure levels. Furthermore, we also summarize the findings of experimental studies in vivo and in vitro regarding our aim; results support the possible obesogenic effects/metabolic disorders mediated by BPS and/or BPF exposure. Unexpectedly, BPS may promote worse obesogenic effects than BPA. In addition, the possible mode of action underlying the obesogenic effects of BPS might be attributed to various pathophysiological mechanisms, including estrogenic or androgenic activities, alterations in the gene expression of critical adipogenesis-related markers, and induction of oxidative stress and an inflammatory state. Furthermore, susceptibility to the adverse effects of BPS may be altered by sex differences according to the results of both epidemiological and experimental studies. However, the possible mode of action underlying these sex differences is still unclear. In conclusion, exposure to BPS or BPF may promote the development of obesity and diabetes. Future approaches are highly needed to assess the safety of BPS and BPF regarding their potential effects in promoting metabolic disturbances. Other studies in different populations and settings are highly suggested.

Studying the factors that cause diabetes and conducting clinical trials has become a priority, particularly raising awareness of the dangers of the disease and how to overcome it. Diet habits are one of the most important risks that must be understood and carefully applied to reduce the risk of diabetes. Nowadays, consuming enough home-cooked food has become a challenge, particularly with modern life performance, pushing people to use processed foods. Ultra-processed food (UPF) consumption has grown dramatically over the last few decades worldwide. This growth is accompanied by the increasing prevalence of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, and type 2 diabetes. UPFs represent three main health concerns: (i) they are generally high in non-nutritive compounds such as sugars, sodium, and trans fat and low in nutritional compounds such as proteins and fibers, (ii) they contain different types of additives that may cause severe health issues, and (iii) they are presented in packages made of synthetic materials that may also cause undesirable health side-effects. The association between the consumption of UPF and the risk of developing diabetes was discussed in this review. The high consumption of UPF, almost more than 10% of the diet proportion, could increase the risk of developing type 2 diabetes in adult individuals. In addition, UPF may slightly increase the risk of developing gestational diabetes. Further efforts are needed to confirm this association; studies such as randomized clinical trials and prospective cohorts in different populations and settings are highly recommended. Moreover, massive improvement in foods’ dietary guidelines to increase the awareness of UPF and their health concerns is highly recommended.

Pregnancy and lactation are critical periods for human well-being and are sensitive windows for pollutant exposure. Bisphenol A (BPA) is well demonstrated as a toxicant and has been replaced in the plastic industry with other bisphenol analogs that share similarities in structure and characteristics, most commonly Bisphenol S (BPS) and Bisphenol F (BPF). Maternal exposure to BPS or BPF can result in their accumulation in the fetal compartment, leading to chronic exposure and potentially limiting normal fetal growth and development. This review summarizes considerable findings of epidemiological or experimental studies reporting associations between BPS or BPF and impaired fetal growth and development. Briefly, the available findings indicate that exposure to the two bisphenol analogs during pregnancy and lactation can result in multiple disturbances in the offspring, including fetal growth restrictions, neurological dysfunctions, and metabolic disorders with the potential to persist throughout childhood. The occurrence of premature births may also be attributed to exposure to the two bisphenols. The possible mechanisms of actions by which the two bisphenols can induce such effects can be attributed to a complex of interactions between the physiological mechanisms, including impaired placental functioning and development, dysregulation of gene expression, altered hormonal balance, and disturbances in immune responses as well as induced inflammations and oxidative stress. In conclusion, the available evidence suggests that BPS and BPF have a toxic potential in a compartment level to BPA. Future research is needed to provide more intensive information; long-term studies and epidemiological research, including a wide scale of populations with different settings, are recommended. Public awareness regarding the safety of BPA-free products should also be enhanced, with particular emphasis on educating individuals responsible for the well-being of children.

The ameliorative and antioxidative stress effects of probiotic-enriched fermented oat (FOE) or fermented oat with honey (HFOE) extracts on streptozotocin-induced diabetes in rats were examined. The total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activity (AOA) were increased in FOE and HFOE after 72 h of fermentation, and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) reached 7.35 mg 100 g⁻¹ in FOE and 8.49 mg 100 g⁻¹ in HFOE. The β-glucan levels were slightly decreased to 2.45 g 100 g⁻¹ DW in FOE and 2.63 g 100 g⁻¹ DW in HFOE. The antidiabetic and hypolipidemic properties of FOE and HFOE were studied in a designed animal model with seven treated groups for 6 weeks. Groups were treated as follows: group 1 (negative group, NR) and group 2 (diabetic rats, DR) were administered 7 mL distilled water orally per day; group 3 (DR + MET) rats were orally administered 50 mg standard drug Metformin kg⁻¹ daily; group 4 (DR + FOE1) diabetic rats were orally administered 3.5 mL FOE daily; group 5 (DR + FOE2) rats were orally administered 7 mL FOE daily; group 6 (DR + HFOE1) rats were orally administered 3.5 mL HFOE daily; and group 7 (DR + HFOE2) rats were orally administered 7 mL HFOE daily. The HFOE at the high dose had a synergistic effect, lowering random blood glucose (RBG) and fasting blood glucose (FBG). The hypolipidemic potential of HFOE at the high dose was indicated by significant reductions in triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol (CHO), high- and low-density lipoproteins (HDL and LDL), and very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL). In addition, 7 mL of HFOE improved liver and kidney function more effectively than other fermented extracts or Metformin. As well as the antioxidant enzyme activity, reduced glutathione (GSH), catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and malonaldehyde (MDA) were significantly enhanced after the administration of HFOE at 7 mL by 68.6%, 71.5%, 55.69%, and 15.98%, respectively, compared to the DR group. In conclusion, administration of L. plantarum-fermented oats supplemented with honey demonstrated antidiabetic effects and a potential approach for controlling glucose levels and lipid profiles, and protecting against oxidative stress.

Antidiabetic properties of fermented foods have been previously demonstrated. This study aimed to examine the antidiabetic and hypolipidemic potential activities of L. plantarum fermented oat extract in Streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Firstly, inoculating 1% of L. plantarum starter culture in 10% whole oat flour in aqueous media resulted in 8.36 log CFU mL⁻¹ and pH 4.60 after 72 h of fermentation at 37 °C. With time progression of oat fermentation, total phenolic content (TPC), antioxidant activity (AOA), and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) contents were significantly increased up to 72 h. On the contrary, a significant reduction in β-glucan content was observed only after 72 h of fermentation. Secondly, separated aqueous extracts, i.e., unfermented oat extract (UFOE) and L. plantarum fermented oat extract (LFOE) were examined in vivo in a rat model, which consisted of five groups. Group 1 (negative group, NR); GROUP 2 (positive group, STZ), intraperitoneally injected with a single dose of 45 mg kg⁻¹ BW of Streptozotocin and administered 7 mL of distilled water orally per day; Group 3 (STZ+MET), diabetic rats orally administered 50 mg of metformin kg⁻¹ BW daily; Group 4 (STZ+UFOE), diabetic rats orally administered 7 mL of UFOE daily; and Group 5 (STZ+UFOE), diabetic rats orally administered 7 mL of LFOE daily for 6 weeks. Monitoring random blood glucose (RBG) and fasting blood glucose (FBG) showed that both the UFOE and the LFOE alleviated hyperglycemia in the STZ-induced diabetic rats. The extracts were significantly efficient in improving serum lipid profiles as compared with the positive group. Moreover, liver and kidneys’ functions were improved, and both extracts promoted hepatoprotective and nephroprotective characteristics. Furthermore, the administration of the UFOE and the LFOE efficiently attenuated GSH, CAT, and SOD enzymes and decreased MDA levels as compared with the positive group. In conclusion, data indicate the potential of UFOE and LFOE in future strategies as functional supplements against diabetes and diabetes-related complications.

The demand for plant-based proteins has increased remarkably over the last decade. Expanding the availability and variety of plant-based protein options has shown positive potential. This study aimed to investigate the qualitative and quantitative changes in amino acids of yellow and red quinoa seeds (YQ and RQ) during a 9-day germination period. The results showed that the germination process led to an increase in the total amino acids by 7.43% and 14.36% in the YQ and RQ, respectively. Both varieties exhibited significant (p < 0.05) increases in non-essential and essential amino acids, including lysine, phenylalanine, threonine, and tyrosine. The content of non-essential amino acids nearly reached the standard values found in chicken eggs. These results were likely attributed to the impact of the germination process in increasing enzymes activity and decreasing anti-nutrient content (e.g., saponins). A linear relationship between increased seeds’ hydration and decreased saponins content was observed, indicating the effect of water absorption in changing the chemical composition of the plant. Both sprouts showed positive germination progression; however, the sprouted RQ showed a higher germination rate than the YQ (57.67% vs. 43.33%, respectively). Overall, this study demonstrates that germination is a promising technique for enhancing the nutritional value of quinoa seeds, delivering sprouted quinoa seeds as a highly recommended source of high-protein grains with notable functional properties.