The recent upsurge of the desert locust Schistocerca gregaria (Forskål, 1775) has had an impact on East Africa and the Middle East as far as India. It has affected and slowed down many aspects of the Pakistani economy. Swarms of locusts have infested many areas and caused immense damage to all types of crops. Both farmers and economists are concerned and are trying to get the most up-to-date information on the best strategy to manage this pest. This paper is an attempt to (i) provide insight into the dynamics of this upsurge internationally as well as in the various regions of Pakistan, (ii) briefly assess its local impact and locust control measures, and (iii) clarify the role of the various stakeholders in the management, both nationally and internationally, suggesting various improvements for the future.

The desert locust has been a notorious pest since ancient times. A population upsurge hit Pakistan in 2019 and caused tremendous damage to agriculture and livelihoods. To take advantage of this ongoing upsurge, we conducted a field study to verify whether locust collection could be an interesting control method to protect crops in the event of an invasion, as well as an accepted food resource for poor rural communities. A village in the Thar desertic region was selected as a type-locality. An awareness campaign was launched to promote the collection and consumption of locusts as well as to alert people of their nutritional value. Two large swarms arrived near the village and several other swarms affected places nearby. Around 3033 kg of locusts were collected through handpicking at night. Most of the locusts were eaten and, as a result, hoppers of the next generation did not emerge in the type-locality; however, hopper bands appeared in areas where entomophagy was not practiced. The study area had less locust activity because swarms could not lay eggs due to entomophagy by the villagers. The consumption of desert locusts could be an effective practice to prevent malnutrition and protein deficiency and, to a certain extent, an efficient mitigation measure to help local populations to better protect themselves and their crops against locust outbreaks. Collection and consumption of locusts should be encouraged while remaining realistic about its real impact on locust control. This should also be done in concert with local authorities to take into account the risks to human health and to avoid the consumption of insects treated with pesticides.

Background: The subfamily Phlebotominae comprises 1028 species of sand fly, of which only 90 are recognized as vectors of pathogenic agents such as Trypanosoma, Leishmania, and Bartonella. In Thailand, leishmaniasis—a sand fly-borne disease—is currently endemic, with 36 documented sand fly species. However, many cryptic species likely remain unidentified. To improve our understanding of the distribution, habitat preferences, and role in disease transmission of these sand flies, further research is necessary. Methods: Sand flies were collected using CDC light traps from 13 locations across four provinces in Thailand between October 2022 and October 2023. Initially, species identification was based on morphological characteristics, employing identification keys, and subsequently confirmed through mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase c subunit I (COI) and cytochrome b (Cytb) sequencing. Species identities were verified using BLASTN and BOLD searches. Species delimitation was conducted using Automatic Barcode Gap Discovery (ABGD) and Assemble Species by Automatic Partitioning (ASAP) with three substitution models. Additionally, intraspecific and interspecific genetic variation, neutrality tests (including Tajima’s and Fu and Li’s D* tests), phylogenetic analyses, and TCS haplotype network analysis were performed using the obtained sequences. Results: A total of 3693 phlebotomine sand flies were collected, with 2261 (61.22%) identified as female. Integrative analyses combining morphological data, BLASTN searches, phylogenetic assessments, and species delimitation confirmed the identification of four genera: Sergentomyia, Grassomyia, Phlebotomus, and Idiophlebotomus, encompassing 12 species: Sergentomyia anodontis, Se. sylvatica, Se. perturbans, Se. barraudi, Se. hivernus, Se. khawi, Se. siamensis, Grassomyia indica, Phlebotomus barguesae, Ph. stantoni, Idiophlebotomus asperulus, and Id. longiforceps. Furthermore, molecular analysis revealed cryptic and complex species, including two putatively novel species, Se. sp. 1 and Se. sp. 2, as well as a unique haplotype. Conclusions: This study, which integrated genetic and morphological identification techniques, identified 12 sand fly species and unveiled cryptic and complex species, including two putatively novel species (Se. sp. 1 and Se. sp. 2) and a unique haplotype. The findings underscore the utility of mitochondrial genes, combined with species delimitation methodologies, as reliable approaches for identifying diverse sand fly species. Graphical

Arthropod vectors play a crucial role in the transmission of hemotropic mycoplasmas, small bacteria that infect red blood cells in a wide range of animals and humans globally, leading to intravascular infections. Traditional Giemsa-stained thin blood smears, used for diagnosing hemotropic mycoplasmas through microscopic examination, have low sensitivity and are effective only when bacteremia levels are high. This study aimed to employ molecular methods to detect and genetically characterize hemotropic mycoplasmas in goats as well as investigate the potential role of fleas as vectors. Blood and flea samples were collected concurrently from goats on 16 farms across seven provinces in Thailand from January 2017 to October 2023. The 16 S rRNA, 23 S rRNA, and rnpB genes of hemoplasmas were amplified and sequenced. All fleas were identified morphologically and molecularly through DNA barcoding of the cytochrome oxidase I gene. A total of 78 out of 500 goats (15.6%), three pooled flea samples (3/6, 50%), and one individual flea (1/49, 2.04%) tested positive for hemoplasmas and all fleas were identified as Ctenocephalides orientis. BLASTN searches utilizing the three genetic markers revealed that the hemoplasmas detected in this study showed 97.81–100% similarity to Mycoplasma ovis and Candidatus Mycoplasma haemovis, which have been previously reported in sheep, goats, and humans, suggesting their zoonotic potential. The sequences were grouped into 28 unique nucleotide sequence types (ntSTs) based on minor variations in the 16 S rRNA gene. Hemotropic mycoplasma infection was significantly associated with farm locations and seasonality of sample collection (p < 0.0001), indicating that farm management practices or environmental conditions may play a critical role in the epidemiology of these infections. This study represents the first report of hemotropic mycoplasmas in goats in Thailand, confirms their presence in fleas, and provides valuable insights for farm management, such as guiding the rational use of insecticides and antibiotics.

Fleas are wingless ectoparasites that feed on the blood of warm-blooded animals and play a significant role as vectors of several medically and veterinary-relevant diseases. The oriental cat flea, Ctenocephalides orientis, is endemic to Asia and infests dogs more frequently than cats. However, its presence in small ruminants remains largely unexplored. Between January 2017 and October 2023, flea surveys were conducted on goat farms across seven different provinces in Thailand. Initially, flea specimens were identified using morphological keys and, subsequently, confirmed through molecular analysis of the mitochondrial genes cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1, 450 bp) and cytochrome c oxidase subunit 2 (cox2, 678 bp), the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1, 828 bp) and the elongation factor-1 alpha (EF-1α, 904 bp) gene. In addition to characterizing these markers, the mitochondrial genome, including all protein-coding genes (PCGs), was amplified, analyzed, and subjected to comparative analyses. Among 500 goats examined, 33 (6.6%) were infested with fleas, which belonged to only one species, C. orientis. Pairwise genetic distance analysis and phylogenetic reconstruction strongly supported the placement of C. orientis within a distinct clade, consistent with the reference sequences. Of the four genetic markers analyzed, EF-1α exhibited the highest diversity. The partial mitochondrial genome of C. orientalis (14,315 bp) encoding 34 genes, including 13 PCGs, 19 transfer RNA genes, and two ribosomal RNA genes, was sequenced. Phylogenetic and genetic distance analyses based on multiple molecular markers and the mitochondrial genome revealed a close evolutionary relationship between C. orientis and C. canis. These findings confirmed that C. orientis is not only restricted to companion animals but also infests goats, suggesting its potential role in disease transmission to other animals. Furthermore, the study findings provide a dataset of both nuclear and mitochondrial molecular markers, which would facilitate future research on the taxonomy, phylogeny, and evolutionary relationships of fleas.