The lungs harbor multiple resident microbial communities, otherwise known as the microbiota. There is an emerging interest in deciphering whether the pulmonary microbiota modulate local immunity, and whether this knowledge could shed light on mechanisms operating in the response to respiratory pathogens. In this study, we investigate the capacity of a pulmonary Lactobacillus strain to modulate the lung T cell compartment and assess its prophylactic potential upon infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the etiological agent of tuberculosis. In naive mice, we report that a Lactobacillus murinus (Lagilactobacillus murinus) strain (CNCM I-5314) increases the presence of lung Th17 cells and of a regulatory T cell (Treg) subset known as RORγt⁺ Tregs. In particular, intranasal but not intragastric administration of CNCM I-5314 increases the expansion of these lung leukocytes, suggesting a local rather than systemic effect. Resident Th17 and RORγt⁺ Tregs display an immunosuppressive phenotype that is accentuated by CNCM I-5314. Despite the well-known ability of M. tuberculosis to modulate lung immunity, the immunomodulatory effect by CNCM I-5314 is dominant, as Th17 and RORγt⁺ Tregs are still highly increased in the lung at 42-d postinfection. Importantly, CNCM I-5314 administration in M. tuberculosis–infected mice results in reduction of pulmonary inflammation, without increasing M. tuberculosis burden. Collectively, our findings provide evidence for an immunomodulatory capacity of CNCM I-5314 at steady state and in a model of chronic inflammation in which it can display a protective role, suggesting that L. murinus strains found in the lung may shape local T cells in mice and, perhaps, in humans. Key Points Lactobacillus murinus increases lung Th17 and RORγt⁺ Tregs in naive and infected mice. L. murinus enhances the immunosuppressive phenotype of lung Th17 and RORγt⁺ Tregs. L. murinus reduces lung inflammation without affecting the bacilli burden.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection triggers Golgi fragmentation through the Golgi-resident protein immunity-related GTPase M (IRGM). Here, we report the role of NLRP3 (NOD-, LRR- and pyrin domain-containing protein 3) and ASC (Apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD), two inflammasome components, in the initial events leading to this fragmentation. We show that ASC resides at the Golgi with IRGM at homeostasis. Upon infection, ASC dissociates from both IRGM and Golgi and associates with HCV-induced NLRP3. NLRP3 silencing inhibits Golgi fragmentation. ASC silencing disrupts the Golgi structure in both control and infected cells and reduces the localization of IRGM at the Golgi. IRGM-depletion in the ASC silenced cells cannot totally restore the Golgi structure. These data highlight a role for ASC, upstream of the formation of the inflammasome, in regulating IRGM through its control on the Golgi. A similar mechanism occurs in response to Nigericin treatment, but not in cells infected with another member of the Flaviviridae family, Zika virus (ZIKV). We propose a model for a newly ascribed function of the inflammasome components in Golgi structural remodeling during certain stimuli. IMPORTANCE Numerous pathogens can affect cellular homeostasis and organelle dynamics. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) triggers Golgi fragmentation through the immunity-related GTPase M (IRGM), a resident Golgi protein to enhance its lipid supply for replication. Here, we reveal the role of the inflammasome components NLRP3 and ASC in this process, thus uncovering a new interplay between effectors of inflammation and viral infection or stress. We show that the inflammasome component ASC resides at the Golgi under homeostasis and associates with IRGM. Upon HCV infection, ASC is recruited to NLRP3 and dissociates from IRGM causing Golgi fragmentation. Our results uncover that aside from their known function in the inflammation response, this host defense regulators also ensure the maintenance of intact intracellular structure in homeostasis status, while their activation relieves factors leading to Golgi remodeling.

Cell–cell fusion is an evolutionarily conserved process that is essential for many functions, including the formation of bone-resorbing multinucleated osteoclasts. Osteoclast multinucleation involves dynamic interactions between the actin cytoskeleton and the plasma membrane that are still poorly characterized. We found that moesin, a cytoskeletal linker protein member of the Ezrin, radixin, and moesin (ERM) protein family, plays a critical role in both osteoclast fusion and function. Moesin inhibition favors osteoclast multinucleation as well as HIV-1- and inflammation-induced cell fusion. Accordingly, moesin depletion decreases membrane-to-cortex attachment and enhances the formation of tunneling nanotubes, F-actin–based intercellular bridges triggering cell–cell fusion. In addition, moesin regulates the formation of the sealing zone, a key structure determining osteoclast bone resorption area, and thus controls bone degradation via a β3-integrin/RhoA/SLK pathway. Finally, moesin-deficient mice have reduced bone density and increased osteoclast abundance and activity. These findings provide a better understanding of cell–cell fusion and osteoclast biology, opening new opportunities to specifically target osteoclasts in bone disease therapy.

During tuberculosis (TB), migration of dendritic cells (DCs) from the site of infection to the draining lymph nodes is known to be impaired, hindering the rapid development of protective T-cell-mediated immunity. However, the mechanisms involved in the delayed migration of DCs during TB are still poorly defined. Here, we found that infection of DCs with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) triggers HIF1A-mediated aerobic glycolysis in a TLR2-dependent manner, and that this metabolic profile is essential for DC migration. In particular, the lactate dehydrogenase inhibitor oxamate and the HIF1A inhibitor PX-478 abrogated Mtb-induced DC migration in vitro to the lymphoid tissue-specific chemokine CCL21, and in vivo to lymph nodes in mice. Strikingly, we found that although monocytes from TB patients are inherently biased toward glycolysis metabolism, they differentiate into poorly glycolytic and poorly migratory DCs compared with healthy subjects. Taken together, these data suggest that because of their preexisting glycolytic state, circulating monocytes from TB patients are refractory to differentiation into migratory DCs, which may explain the delayed migration of these cells during the disease and opens avenues for host-directed therapies for TB.

Tuberculosis (TB) is a significant aggravating factor in individuals living with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), the causative agent for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Both Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), the bacterium responsible for TB, and HIV-1 target macrophages. Understanding how Mtb subverts these cells may facilitate the identification of new druggable targets. Here, we explored how TB can induce macrophages to form tunneling nanotubes (TNT), promoting HIV-1 spread. We found that TB triggers metabolic rewiring of macrophages, increasing their glycolytic ATP production. Using pharmacological inhibitors and glucose deprivation, we discovered that disrupting aerobic glycolysis significantly reduces HIV-1 exacerbation in these macrophages. Glycolysis is essential for tunneling nanotubes (TNT) formation, which facilitates viral transfer and cell-to-cell fusion and induces the expression of the sialoadhesin Siglec-1, enhancing both HIV-1 binding and TNT stabilization. Glycolysis did not exacerbate HIV-1 infection when TNT formation was pharmacologically prevented, indicating that higher metabolic activity is not sufficient per se to make macrophages more susceptible to HIV-1. Overall, these data might facilitate the development of targeted therapies aimed at inhibiting glycolytic activity in TB-induced immunomodulatory macrophages to ultimately halt HIV-1 dissemination in co-infected patients.