Background and Objectives: There are typical differences in body composition and distribution of muscle fiber types between women and men. However, research investigating the effects of exercise based on sex differences is limited, and studies examining sex differences in physiological adaptations according to exercise type are scarce. We aimed to compare the effects of exercise types on muscle strength and body composition in men and women through a meta-analysis. Materials and Methods: A systematic literature search was conducted using the PubMed/Medline, Web of Science, CINAHL, and EBSCO databases. Keywords included “endurance training”, “resistance training”, “concurrent training”, “muscle strength”, “body composition”, “sex characteristics”, and “men and women”. The standardized mean difference (SMD) was presented separately for men and women based on the pre- and post-intervention values for each exercise type. Results: Concurrent training showed the greatest effect on the increase in leg press muscle strength in men, and resistance training showed the greatest effect in women. Concurrent training showed the greatest effect size in both men and women in increasing bench press muscle strength. Resistance training and concurrent training showed a small effect size on lean mass reduction in both men and women. Endurance training and concurrent training significantly reduced fat mass in men. However, no significant changes in fat mass were observed in any exercise type among women. Conclusions: Concurrent training is the most efficient type of exercise for men, as it is effective in increasing upper- and lower-body muscle strength, increasing lean mass, and reducing fat mass. Resistance training is most effective in increasing muscle strength in females, whereas endurance training is most effective in reducing fat mass. However, it is difficult to corroborate these results because of the lack of study samples included in the analysis and the differences in exercise methods, participant age, and exercise duration.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of hippotherapy and electroencephalography (EEG) neurofeedback on brain function and blood brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) level in children with attention-deficit or/and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Sixteen children with ADHD participated in this study and were randomly divided into 2 groups, a 1-time hippotherapy group (W1G, n = 8) and a 2-time hippotherapy group (W2G, n = 8). All the participants attended 8 weeks of hippotherapy program in the primary training, and then 7 children with ADHD attended 8 weeks of hippotherapy program combined with neurofeedback training in the secondary training. Blood BDNF levels were measured, and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was performed. The EEG neurofeedback training program was used to train and measure psychological factors. The combined effect of hippotherapy and neurofeedback on BDNF level showed a decreased tendency in W1G (pretraining, 1766.03 ± 362.54 pg/ml; posttraining, 1630.65 ± 276.70 pg/ml). However, the BDNF level of W2G showed an increased tendency (pretraining, 1968.28 ± 429.08 pg/ml; posttraining, 1976.28 ± 425.35 pg/ml). Moreover, combined training showed a significant group x repetition interaction in W1G (pretraining, 1436.57 ± 368.76 pg/ml; posttraining, 1525.23 ± 346.22 pg/ml; F = 3.870, p = 0.039). fMRI results showed that the left thalamus activity in both groups had a decreased tendency and a significantly lower change in W2G than in W1G (p < 0.05). This study confirmed a significant increase in blood BDNF level after combined training, which may induce brain function improvement in children with ADHD.

In the present pilot study, we aimed to investigate the effects of the Silverrobics exercise program, which is similar to aerobic dance, on the factors related to glucose metabolism and liver enzymes. Eight elderly women with obesity and impaired fasting glucose participated in the Silverrobics exercise program (60 minutes per session for five times a week for 8 weeks). The program was conducted at 50-60% of the heart rate reserve at 1 to 2 weeks and at 60-80% of the heart rate reserve at 3 to 8 weeks. To verify the effect of this 8-week exercise program on glucose metabolism and liver enzymes, blood analysis at pre- and post-training was performed. After the Silverrobics exercise program, there were significant decreases in the glucose (p<0.05), glycated hemoglobin A1c (p<0.05), 1,5-anhydroglucitol (p<0.05), and insulin levels (p<0.01) and homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance score (p<0.05). However, there were no significant effects on the liver enzymes, except for alkaline phosphatase. The alkaline phosphatase level increased after the Silverrobics exercise program (p<0.05). Although the Silverrobics exercise program had no beneficial effects on the liver enzymes, it may play an important role in preventing liver diseases considering the effects on glucose metabolism.

[Purpose] This review aimed to identify differences in the effects of co-intervention with resistance training (RT) and protein supplementation according to sex and provide meaningful information for future research on the development of exercise programs to improve muscle volume and muscle function.[Methods] PubMed, Science Direct, and Google Scholar were searched to identify clinical and nonclinical studies that assessed the effects of RT in older adults with sarcopenia; these studies were published between 1990 and 2023. Cross-sectional and double-blind studies (randomized controlled trials, RCTs) were examined in this review.[Results] The effects of parallel intervention with RT and protein supplementation on muscle volume and physical function were found to differ according to sex. Both males and females had improvements in muscle strength, muscle mass, and physical function after RT and protein supplementation; however, many studies found a greater increase in muscle volume and function in males than in females. Such difference may be due to differences in physiological characteristics between males and females.[Conclusion] Based on the findings of this review, the effects of combined intervention with RT and protein supplementation on muscle strength, muscle mass, and physical function to differ according to sex. Owing to these sex differences in the response and physiological characteristics caused by the parallel intervention of RT and protein supplementation, such differences must be considered to maximize the effects of RT and protein supplementation.

In the present study, we investigated the effect of exercise and arginine on the inflammatory makers and Cu-Mn superoxide dismutase (SOD) expression in the aortas of high-fat-induced obese rats. Fifty 6-month-old male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned as follows: HF-Con: high-fat diet, HF-Ex: high-fat diet and exercise, HF-Ex+A: high-fat diet and combined exercise and arginine, HF-A: high-fat diet and arginine. The high-fat diet was fed for 12 weeks following 1 week of environmental adaptation with mixed solid chow. The rats performed treadmill exercise 6 times per week for 12 weeks at20 m/min for 60 min. L-argininewas mixed with saline and orally administered at 150 mg/kg once a day. Expressions of inflammatory markers (including NF- κB, TNF-α, COX-2) and SOD were evaluated using western blotting. NF-κB expression decreased significantly (p<0.05) in the HF-Ex group compared with HF-Con group, and we found additional effects(p<0.01) on NF-κB expression in HF-EX+A compared withHF-Ex. TNF-α expression decreased significantly (p<0.01) in HF-Ex, FH-Ex+A, and FH-A compared with HF-Con. In a similar trend with NF-κB expression, COX-2 expression decreased significantly in HF-Ex compared withHF-Con. In Cu-Mn SOD expression, there was no difference between HF and HF-Ex, but significant increases (p<0.01) inCu-Mn SOD werefound in HF-Ex+A and HF-A. Based on our results, treatment that combines exercise and arginine might be effective for modulatingvascular inflammation and oxidative stress in obesity.

This study aims to provide information to improve the performance of athletes comparing the effects of carbohydrate–electrolyte intake before and during exercise on metabolism and performance in soccer players. The study had a single-blind cross-over design. Drust’s protocol is a soccer-specific intermittent exercise test. The carbohydrate–electrolyte intake experiments were divided into three timings: first, pre-exercise; second, half-time; and third, mixed. Eight participants were included in the data analysis (age: 21.32 ± 1.19 years; BMI: 22.69 ± 1.91 kg/m²; height: 176.5 ± 7.52 cm; weight: 69.5 ± 9.18 kg; V_max: 16.75 0.71 km/h). The results of the mixed test showed a significantly lower respiratory exchange ratio than those of the placebo and half-time tests (p < 0.05). The mixed test showed significantly more fat oxidation than the half-time test (p < 0.05). The running times are placebo (422.13 ± 133.44 s) and mixed (677.38 ± 217.75 s), and the distances are placebo (1577.25 ± 517.02 m) and mixed (2530.00 ± 832.71 m) (p < 0.05). The mixed test showed a significantly lower rating of perceived exertion than the placebo test (p < 0.05). Carbohydrate oxidation and heart rate showed no significant differences between the experiments (p > 0.05). The exercise protocol in this study showed the metabolic response of soccer players to intermittent high-intensity exercise and subsequent endurance exercise. In conclusion, it can be seen that the intake of carbohydrate–electrolytes improves the performance of soccer players, and the effect varies depending on the timing of carbohydrate–electrolyte intake.