This review examines state-of-the-art practices in water harvesting and groundwater recharge, emphasizing their crucial role in sustainable water resource management. Groundwater, a crucial resource for drinking and agricultural water, is facing depletion due to the combined effects of urbanization, climate change, and unregulated extraction. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of contemporary knowledge on water harvesting and recharge, using a systematic four-step methodology to identify and analyze relevant studies from databases like Google Scholar, Scopus, and ScienceDirect. It categorizes water harvesting techniques, such as rainwater, flood water, and groundwater harvesting, and evaluates their effectiveness in enhancing recharge. Both natural and artificial recharge methods are explored, highlighting their role in improving groundwater levels and water quality. This study also reviews recharge estimation techniques and their applicability across hydrogeological contexts. This paper promotes a balanced approach to address issues of water scarcity by integrating water harvesting into groundwater management strategies. This integration aims to build resilience against climate change-driven environmental damage. Recommendations are provided to enhance the sustainability of these practices, with a particular focus on arid and semi-arid regions where water demand is rising. Overall, this study underscores the significance of water harvesting and recharge in promoting long-term resource sustainability.

The management and monitoring of the quality of water resources in the Mekelle area are challenging, due to both geogenic and anthropogenic impacts. The extent of these impacts and the sources of pollution in this area have not been thoroughly investigated. In this article, a mapping of water resources vulnerability was carried out using the DRASTIC method and a modified DRASTIC vulnerability map was produced. Single-parameter and map-removal sensitivity analyses were performed on the relevant rates and weights. A final DRASTIC vulnerability index, varying from 54 to 140, was divided into four vulnerability classes: low (225.7 km²), medium (302.8 km²), high (307.2 km²), and very high (187.6 km²); the values in the parentheses indicate the corresponding areal coverage of each class. Similarly, a modified DRASTIC vulnerability index, ranging from 91 to 192, was divided into four vulnerability classes: low (166.4 km²), medium (266.8 km²), high (338.0 km²), and very high (252.2 km²) Nitrates were used to validate both models. in which moderate positive correlations (with Pearson’s correlation coefficient, r) of 0.681 and 0.702 were calculated for the DRASTIC and modified DRASTIC indices, respectively. A comparison of the two maps showed that significant sources of pollution are located in areas with high to very high vulnerability. The results of this research work can be used for the protection and monitoring of groundwater resources in the Mekelle area.

Armed conflicts continue to severely impact human populations and essential infrastructure, particularly water supply systems. This study examines the Yechilla area, a high-intensity battle corridor during the Tigray (between 12°15′26″ 14°57′49″ N latitude; and 36°20′57″–39°58′54″ E longitude) war (2020–2022). Using Cochran’s formula, a representative sample of 89 water schemes was selected for onsite assessment. Additional data on damages to water offices, personnel, equipment, and related infrastructure were gathered through face-to-face interviews with local officials and water professionals, onsite visits, and reviews of governmental and non-governmental archives, and previous studies. The findings reveal that 48.3% of water schemes in the study area are non-functional (does not deliver water), which is a significant increase from pre-war non-functionality rates of approximately 7.1% regionally and 21.1% nationally. Despite the Pretoria peace agreement, non-functionality levels remain critically high two years after conflict. Damage includes partial impairments, lack of technical and spare part support, complete destruction, and looting of water scheme components. The widespread destruction of civilian water infrastructure during the Tigray conflict underscores the insufficiency of existing international legal frameworks, such as the International Humanitarian Law and International Water Law, which are inadequately protecting civilians and their property. Understanding the broader consequences of armed conflicts requires examining the indirect effects and the complex interactions within and between social, economic, and environmental systems. These interconnected impacts are essential to fully grasp how conflict affects livelihoods and human security on a wider scale.

Reliable estimation of aquifer transmissivity (T) is fundamental for groundwater assessment, development, and sustainable management. Although pumping tests provide the most reliable estimates of transmissivity, their application is often constrained by the limited availability of wells and the high cost of testing, particularly in data-scarce regions such as the Raya Valley, northern Ethiopia. This study evaluates the potential of electrical transverse resistance (Tr), derived from Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES), as a proxy for estimating transmissivity in unconsolidated aquifers. A total of 44 VES datasets integrated with pumping test data from nearby wells were used to develop empirical T–Tr relationships. The Schlumberger electrode array was employed with a maximum current electrode spacing (AB) of 1000 m, while an additional 263 VES datasets acquired between 1996 and 2024 were analyzed to characterize subsurface electrical variability. The results reveal strong linear relationships between transmissivity and transverse resistance. Normalization of transverse resistance to account for pore-water resistivity produced comparable relationships, with differences of only 1–3%, indicating that normalization provides limited additional benefit. Independent validation using 16 pumping-test datasets demonstrated excellent agreement between measured and estimated transmissivity values (R² = 0.99). The transmissivity values used to develop the empirical equations ranged from 120 to 1180 m²/d. These relationships were derived specifically from unconsolidated aquifers within the Raya Valley and should therefore be applied within this hydrogeological context. Their applicability to confined sedimentary aquifers and fractured volcanic formations, which were not represented in the present dataset, remains uncertain. Further studies involving these hydrogeological settings are needed to evaluate and potentially extend the applicability of the proposed relationships. The developed T–Tr relationships provide a reliable and cost-effective approach for estimating transmissivity in saturated unconsolidated aquifers where pumping-test data are limited and may be transferable to hydrogeologically similar environments.

Natural and anthropogenic factors can cause significant damage to ecosystems, particularly affecting vegetation and landscapes. Satellite-based remote sensing plays a key role in rapid damage assessment, post-disaster reconnaissance and recovery monitoring. In this study, we evaluate the performance of Sentinel-2 and Landsat data for assessing woody vegetation damage across nearly 60 % of the landmass of Tigray region (northern Ethiopia), following the armed conflict between November 2020 and November 2022. Two analytical approaches were employed: (i) a regional NDVI analysis covering 39,661 km2, and (ii) a detailed assessment of five clusters and 20 hot-spot areas using both satellite-derived indices and ground observations. The regional NDVI results supported by ground-truth data, indicate that most deforestation occur within communal exclosures, particularly those located near major battle zones (e.g., 7-Hugum, May-Kinetal, Adi-Da’Ero). Between 2020 and 2025, the study area lost more than 107,602 hectares of woody vegetated land, resulting in a decline in vegetation cover from 13.51% to 10.67%. Interestingly, some areas showed an increase in vegetation cover during the conflict, including privately managed lands, military bases, religious sites and remote locations. The finding provides important insight for future afforestation strategies, natural regeneration efforts, and sustainability in Tigray and similar conflict-affected regions.