Most animals employ aggressive behaviours to acquire resources such as food, territory and mates. Although mating is important for males, which typically exhibit competitive behaviours to gain mating opportunities, they generally tend to avoid conflict escalation; while extreme combat also occurs in some species and results in death. In this study, male-male lethal combat behaviour in Anastatus disparis was examined (Hymenoptera: Eupelmidae) by investigating the characteristics of fighting and the factors that influence fighting intensity in this species. Male fight intensity in A. disparis increased with both competitor density and female presence, while it was not influenced by the relatedness among male competitors. By comparing the frequency of received attacks between injured and non-injured males, we found that the former were more vulnerable to attack. In contrast to death due to lethal attack, death that occurs as a result of A. disparis combat may be the cumulative effect of injuries sustained over repeated competitive encounters. Combined with the biological characters of A. disparis, we discuss potential factors contributing to the evolution of fatal conflict in this species.

Anoplophora glabripennis (Motsch.) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) is a destructive woodborer, at-tacking many species of deciduous hardwood trees. Apriona swainsoni (Hope) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) is a woodborer of Sophora japonica L. (Angiospermae: Fabaceae). Dastarcus helophoroides (Fairmaire) (Coleoptera: Bothrideridae) is an important natural enemy of both Cerambycid species in China. Kairomones for two populations of D. helophoroides that parasi-tize A. glabripennis and A. swainsoni respectively were studied. Based on identification and quantification of volatiles from larval frass produced by A. glabripennis and A. swainsoni , mono-terpenes were selected to test their kairomonal activity to both populations of D. helophoroides adults using a Y-tube olfactometer. The results indicated that ( S )-(-)-limonene served as a kairo-mone for the population of D. helophoroides parasitized A. glabripennis . α-pinene, ( 1R )-(+)-α-pinene and (+)-β-pinene were attractive to the population of D. helophoroides parasitized A. swainsoni . The results provide information about the co-evolution of D. helophoroides , its host, and host-food trees.