With the booming development of rural tourism, the users of rural environments are gradually becoming more diverse. Both tourists and villagers are the main appreciators of rural landscapes, but the cognitive similarities and differences in rural landscape between the two have not yet been explored. Therefore, taking Wangshang Village, located in Shaanxi Province, China as a case study, this research used a combination of quantitative analysis (eye-tracking technology) and qualitative analysis (semi-structured interviews) to compare and analyze the cognitive similarities and differences of rural landscapes between tourists and villagers. The experimental results showed that the cognitive similarities and differences in rural landscapes between tourists and villagers are mainly reflected in their level of cognition, observation methods, and key elements of focus. The reasons for cognitive differences are due to the different living backgrounds of the two groups of subjects, as well as their varying levels of familiarity, novelty, and personal needs towards rural landscapes. In conclusion, studying the cognitive differences between the two groups of participants, tourists and villagers, can help address the homogenization problem faced by rural landscapes. Meanwhile, the results of this study also provide theoretical guidance and methodological support for rural landscape design.

The core of the cultural services of ecosystems (CESs) is the spiritual connection between humans and nature, and participatory mapping from the stakeholder perspective is an effective method for perceiving and protecting hotspot CES areas. This study used participatory mapping combined with 184 interviews and questionnaires, completed on 10 December 2023, to investigate the perceptions of CESs in Taibai Mountain National Forest Park by different stakeholder groups; spatial and correlation analyses were used to comparatively analyze the characteristics of the differences in the perceptions of CESs among different stakeholders, the influencing factors, and their spatial distribution patterns. The results show that (1) there is a positive correlation between the literacy level of external stakeholders and the perception of CESs, and there is no significant difference between the differences in the other demographic characteristics of stakeholders (gender, age, occupation, and literacy level) in the perception of CESs. (2) Different stakeholders have convergent perceptions of spiritual and religious values, cultural heritage values, educational values, and inspirational values, whereas there are greater differences in the perceptions of aesthetic values, ecological and recreational values, and local identity values. (3) Different stakeholders of the same CES are strongly correlated, and there is no correlation between spiritual and religious values and other values and no correlation between recreational and ecotourism values and educational and cultural heritage values; however, there is a correlation between all other subcultural services. It is important to fully identify and consider the characteristics of the differences in the perceptions of different stakeholders in CESs to enhance the regional planning and scenic area service function in the study area.

As a World Cultural Heritage site, the Beijing–Hangzhou Grand Canal is lined with historic and cultural cities that bear abundant historical and cultural connotations. It is of vital importance to address the issues of landscape homogenization, the disconnect between conservation measures and public needs, and other related challenges in the development of these cities. This study adopts a mixed-methods approach combining qualitative and quantitative research. By integrating subjective landscape evaluation with eye tracking analysis, the ancient city of Taierzhuang along the Beijing–Hangzhou Grand Canal was selected as the research subject to conduct an in-depth investigation into the visual experience and preferences for different types of landscapes in this area. The study yielded the following findings: There are significant differences in visual experiences among various types of landscapes in Taierzhuang Ancient City. Among them, participants exhibited the highest level of attention toward canal landscapes and the lowest toward heritage site landscapes. In terms of visual distribution differences, eye tracking heatmaps revealed that attention was primarily concentrated on architectural structures and water surface reflections. In the subjective evaluation analysis, canal cultural landscapes received the highest comprehensive score (4.39 points), followed by historical architectural landscapes (4.02 points), historical street landscapes (3.93 points), modern commemorative landscapes (3.72 points), and heritage site landscapes (3.69 points). Additionally, a significant correlation was found between eye tracking data and subjective evaluation results, validating the scientifically effective relationship between subjective assessments of historical cultural landscapes and eye tracking analysis. The findings of this study not only provide a scientific basis for landscape improvement and optimization in other canal-related historical and cultural cities but also offer new research methods and perspectives for the protection and development of other heritage landscapes.

The rural landscape, as the core constituent unit of rural space, is vital for promoting sustainable rural development and achieving rural revitalization goals. However, current research is often limited to single groups, neglecting differences in visual behaviors (VBs) and landscape preferences (LPs) among diverse groups. Thus, this study employed eye-tracking technology combined with a landscape preference questionnaire to investigate the VBs and LPs of 160 participants when viewing rural landscapes. The results indicate that there is a notable correlation between VBs and LPs (p < 0.01), and the two aspects mutually influence each other. Moreover, groups with different demographic characteristics exhibit significant differences in both VBs and LPs. Among them, the score for LPs in the group of farmers, service sector workers, and retirees is significantly higher than that in the group of students, while the mean fixation duration is significantly lower than that in the group of students. Based on these research findings, this study suggests that, during the process of rural landscape design, full consideration should be given to the VBs and LPs of diverse groups with different demographic characteristics to enhance the inclusivity of rural landscape design and facilitate the realization of diversified and sustainable rural development.

Restorative environment research has primarily focused on conventional green spaces such as urban parks, while the restorative potential of leisure agricultural parks and their distinct human–environment restoration patterns compared with urban parks remain insufficiently understood. This study compares visitors’ recreational patterns between urban parks and leisure agricultural parks and examines how visiting behaviors and activity engagement are associated with restorative perception in leisure agricultural parks. Based on 322 valid questionnaires from respondents with experiences in both types of green spaces, paired comparison analysis, Spearman correlation analysis, and partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) were employed. The results revealed distinct recreational patterns between the two green space types. Urban parks showed higher accessibility and visiting frequency, representing convenient and frequent daily use, whereas leisure agricultural parks were characterized by longer stays and greater activity engagement, reflecting destination-based recreation. In leisure agricultural parks, accessibility and visiting frequency were mainly associated with restorative perception indirectly through duration of stay. Moreover, attentional concentration showed the strongest positive association with restorative perception, while activity intensity was negatively associated with restorative perception. The findings reveal differences in recreational patterns between the two park types and further identify pathways associated with restorative perception in leisure agricultural parks, providing a reference for local authorities and local communities to optimize visitors’ stay processes, activity organization, and environmental experiences in response to health-oriented needs.

Forest recreation is a Human–Environment experiential process co-constituted by sensory experiences, behavioral engagement, and emotional experiences; however, how these different experiential components interrelate remains insufficiently systematically verified. This study constructed a theoretical model of “sensory experience—behavioral engagement—emotional experience” to examine the mediating role of behavioral engagement between sensory experience and emotional experience. Using a sample of 337 urban residents from Tiantai National Forest Park in Hanzhong City, Shaanxi Province, China, the study employs confirmatory factor analysis, structural equation modeling, and the Bootstrap method for testing. The results indicated that: (1) sensory experience significantly influenced behavioral engagement (β = 0.332); (2) behavioral engagement significantly influenced emotional experience (β = 0.216); and (3) sensory experience not only directly influenced emotional experience (β = 0.235) but also exerted a significant indirect effect on emotional experience through behavioral engagement (indirect effect = 0.072), demonstrating that behavioral engagement plays a partial mediating role. The study reveals the processual pathway through which urban residents move from perceiving the environment, to engaging with the environment, to forming emotional experiences, and further indicates that sensory experience is not only directly related to emotional experience but can also form an indirect association through behavioral engagement. By integrating sensory experience, behavioral engagement, and emotional experience into a unified processual analytical framework, this study provides empirical evidence for explaining the intrinsic mechanism by which forest park recreational experiences transform from perception to emotion, and offers references for the sensory environment creation and engagement opportunity optimization of forest recreational spaces.