Fresh vegetables consumed raw are a recognized but underappreciated vehicle for foodborne pathogens and antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) bacteria, yet data on AMR determinants in fresh produce remain scarce for West Africa. This cross-sectional study characterized the prevalence of Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp . in 300 fresh vegetable samples from farms, markets, restaurants, and supermarkets in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, along with their antimicrobial resistance profiles, selected β-lactamase genes, and associated food-handling risk factors. E. coli was detected in 63.0% of samples (95% CI: 57.4–68.3%) and Salmonella spp. in 10.0% (95% CI: 6.9–13.9%). Prevalence did not differ significantly by season for either species (E. coli: 61.3% dry season vs 64.7% rainy season, χ²(1) = 0.36, p = 0.55; Salmonella: 8.0% vs 12.0%, χ²(1) = 1.33, p = 0.25). Per-agent resistance rates were likewise broadly similar between seasons for both species (e.g., Salmonella tetracycline resistance 23.3% dry vs 26.7% rainy). Salmonella isolates showed higher resistance for several individual agents than E. coli isolates, most notably tetracycline (25.0% vs 15.3%) and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (21.7% vs 12.8%; see Table 1). Multidrug resistance (non-susceptibility to ≥ 3 antimicrobial classes) was observed in 60% of resistant Salmonella isolates. Among eight resistant isolates screened by multiplex polymerase chain reaction (four E. coli and four Salmonella, selected to represent the range of resistance phenotypes observed), blaTEM was detected in 100% (8/8), blaOXA in 50.0% (4/8), and blaCTX-M in 50.0% (4/8), with co-occurrence of all three genes in 37.5% (3/8) of isolates. The detection of the extended-spectrum β-lactamase-associated blaCTX-M gene provides new surveillance data on vegetable-associated bacteria in Burkina Faso, an environmental compartment not previously included in national AMR monitoring. Risky food-handling practices were widespread: 98% of vendors stored vegetables at ambient temperature, 85% applied no disinfection, and 80% of settings presented cross-contamination risk with raw meat. A screening-level model yielded an indicative 2.0% exposure-risk estimate for antibiotic-resistant Salmonella per raw salad serving; this is a screening-level indicator rather than a confirmed infection probability (see Methods). A HACCP-based control framework with five critical control points is proposed as a preliminary, field-validation-pending tool. These findings support the integration of fresh produce into One Health antimicrobial resistance surveillance strategies in West Africa.

Background: Locally processed agro-food products are central to West African diets, infant and complementary feeding, local entrepreneurship and access to culturally appropriate foods. Post-production handling, packaging, transport, storage and retail exposure may compromise microbial and physicochemical quality. This study assessed ten locally processed agro-food products marketed in Burkina Faso and evaluated product-specific post-production supply-chain vulnerabilities at the retail level. Results: Thirty samples were collected, comprising three independent batches of each of the following products: infant pearl millet–soy–peanut flour (P1), fortified infant flour (P2), instant multi-cereal porridge (P3), dehydrated attiéké (P4), dried mango (P5), natural honey (P6), cottonseed cooking oil (P7), hibiscus juice (P8), Moringa oleifera leaf powder (P9) and roasted cashew nuts (P10). All continuous variables were z-score standardized prior to multivariate analysis. Principal component analysis (PCA) retained two components explaining 76.9% of total variance (PC1: 53.3%; PC2: 23.6%). The highest post-production vulnerability composite index (PPVCI) scores were observed for Moringa oleifera leaf powder (P9, rank 1) and hibiscus juice (P8, rank 2); intermediate profiles were identified for infant flours (P1, rank 3) and multi-cereal porridge (P3, rank 4); and the lowest profiles were recorded for honey (P6), cottonseed oil (P7) and roasted cashew nuts (P10). Conclusions: The study provides baseline evidence for targeted quality-assurance interventions. Priority actions include: strengthened hygiene control during drying, milling and packaging; improved moisture-proof packaging for powders and dried products; cold-chain and water-quality control for hibiscus juice; oxidative stability monitoring for oil and lipid-rich products; and enhanced surveillance of infant foods and nutritional supplements. Future studies should incorporate mycotoxin screening and molecular confirmation methods.

Background: Food safety of locally processed agro-food products is a major public health concern in resource-limited settings; in Burkina Faso’s Mouhoun Loop, shea butter, soumbala, honey and other traditional products are key income and nutrition sources for thousands of households, yet their sanitary quality has remained largely undocumented at the production-unit level. Methods: This cross-sectional study assessed microbiological and physicochemical quality across nine commodity chains in 107 production units in six provinces, alongside socio-economic profiling. Parameters included moisture, free acidity, peroxide index, total aerobic mesophilic count, total coliforms, and yeasts/moulds, assessed against the Codex Regional Standard for Unrefined Shea Butter (CXS 325R-2017) and other applicable Codex standards. Statistical analysis included Mann-Whitney U tests with rank-biserial effect sizes, Kruskal-Wallis tests, Spearman correlation, PCA, Random Forest variable-importance modelling, Firth penalised logistic regression and leave-one-out cross-validated ROC analysis. Results: Overall compliance was 73.8% (79/107). Non-compliance (26.2%, n = 28) was exclusive to shea butter (84.8%; 28/33) and driven almost entirely by residual moisture exceeding the Category II regional limit (non-compliant mean 0.37% vs. compliant mean 0.17%; Mann-Whitney U = 140, p < 0.0001, rank-biserial r = − 1.00); free acidity and peroxide index were fully compliant across all 33 units. Random Forest confirmed moisture’s dominance (Gini importance = 59.1%), and Firth logistic regression identified it as the sole significant determinant of non-compliance (OR = 17.5 per SD; p = 0.020). Leave-one-out ROC analysis achieved AUC = 1.00, reflecting internal consistency (compliance is itself defined by a moisture cut-off) rather than independent predictive validity; the empirical 0.22% Youden cut-point, being above the 0.20% regulatory limit, is not proposed as an operational threshold. Non-compliance was widespread across provinces (50–100% of units) rather than geographically confined, and affected the chain receiving the largest programme investment share (37%); funded-unit members were predominantly women (78.1%) and youth (50.3%). Conclusions: Sanitary non-compliance is concentrated in a specific, addressable aspect of shea-butter drying and clarification practice rather than distributed evenly across chains; this cross-sectional study did not assess hygiene practices directly or include a comparison group, so no claim is made about prior training effectiveness. Continued use of the existing 0.20% regulatory moisture limit, alongside targeted drying and packaging interventions for shea butter, is recommended.Keywords: shea butter; residual moisture; sanitary compliance; Random Forest; Burkina Faso.

This study explores the microbiological quality of raw vegetables and salads in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, by assessing contamination levels and antimicrobial resistance of isolated bacteria across the supply chain. A total of 300 samples were collected from production fields, urban markets, and mass catering sites, and analyzed for Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. using ISO standard methods. Susceptibility testing was performed on isolates. The results show that contamination levels vary significantly (p<0.05), with E. coli concentrations reaching up to 4.08 ± 0.04 log CFU/g. The prevalence of Salmonella spp. remains low (0 to 3%), with contamination detected only in ready-to-eat salads. In terms of antimicrobial resistance, E. coli isolates showed high resistance to amoxicillin (62.12%), and the Multi-Antibiotic Resistance (MAR) index exceeded 0.2 for 45.5% of isolates. Among Salmonella spp. isolates, 42.11% were resistant to amoxicillin, but notable sensitivity to fluoroquinolones and carbapenems (84.21%) was observed. These findings highlight that agricultural practices and final preparation hygiene are critical control points and confirm the vegetable supply chain as a reservoir for antimicrobial resistance, providing essential data to guide public health policies in Ouagadougou.