Glaciers of the Tista basin represent an important water source for mountain communities and a large population downstream. The article presents observable changes in the Chhombo Chhu Watershed (CCW) glacier area of the Tista basin, the Sikkim Himalaya. The CCW contains 74 glaciers (> 0.02 km²) with a mean glacier size of 0.61 km². We determined changes in glaciers from the declassified Hexagon Keyhole-9 (KH-9) (1975), Landsat 5 Thematic Mapper (TM) (1989), Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) (2000), Landsat 5 TM (2010), and Sentinel-2A (2018) images. The total glacier area in 1975 was 62.6 ± 0.7 km²; and by 2018, the area had decreased to 44.8 ± 1.5 km², an area loss of 17.9 ± 1.7 km² (0.42 ± 0.04 km² a⁻¹). Clean glaciers exhibited more area loss of 11.8 ± 1.2 km² (0.27 ± 0.03 km² a⁻¹) than partially debris-covered and maximally debris-covered glaciers. The area loss is 5.0 ± 0.4 km² (0.12 ± 0.01 km² a⁻¹) for partially covered glaciers and 1.0 ± 0.1 km² (−0.02 ± 0.002 km² a⁻¹) for maximally covered glaciers. The glacier area loss in the CCW of the Sikkim Himalaya is 0.62 ± 0.5 km² a⁻¹ during 2000–2010, and it is 0.77 ± 0.6 km² a⁻¹ during 2010–2018. Field investigations of selected glaciers and climatic records also support the glacier recession in the CCW due to a significant increase in temperature (0.25 ^∘C a⁻¹) and more or less static precipitation since 1995. The dataset is now available from the Zenodo web portal: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4457183 (Chowdhury et al., 2021).

The Sikkim Himalayan glaciers and glacial lakes are affected by climate change like other parts of the Himalayas. As a result of this climate variability in the Sikkim Himalaya, a detailed study of the Gurudongmar lake complex (GLC) evolution and outburst susceptibility assessment is required. Glacial lake volume estimation and lake outburst susceptibility assessment were carried out to reveal different characteristics for all four lakes (GL-1, GL-2, GL-3, and GL-4) from the lake complex. Each of these lakes has a moderate to very high potential to outburst. As the dam of GL-1 provides no retention capacity, there is a very high potential of a combined effect with the sudden failure of the moraine-dams of GL-2 or GL-3 located upstream. Temporal analysis of GLC using optical remote sensing data and in-field investigations revealed a rapidly increasing total lake area by ~74 ± 3%, with an expansion rate of +0.03 ± 0.002 km² a⁻¹ between 1962 and 2018 due to climate change and ongoing glacier retreat. The overall lake area expansion rates are dependent on climate-driven factors, and constantly increasing average air temperature is responsible for the enlargement of the lake areas. Simultaneously, changes in GLC expansion velocity are driven by changes in the total amount of precipitation. The deficit in precipitation probably triggered the initial higher rate from 1962 to 1988 during the winter and spring seasons. The post-1990s positive anomaly in precipitation might have reduced the rate of the glacial lake area expansion considerably.

The Chhombo Chhu Watershed of Tista basin in Sikkim Himalaya, located between the Greater Himalayan range and the Tethyan Sedimentary Sequence, is the storehouse of number of glacial lakes with large areas and volumes. In this study, we mapped the glacial lakes changes between 1975–2018 and assessed its dynamics based on manual analysis of optical satellite images using KeyHole-9 Hexagon (∼4 m), Landsat Series (∼15-30 m), and Sentinel 2A-MSI (∼10-20 m) imagery and verified during field surveys. The results show that the number of lakes has increased from 62 to 98, and its total area expanded significantly by ∼34.6 ± 5.4%, i.e., from 8.5 ± 0.2 km² in 1975 to 11.4 ± 0.6 km² by 2018, at an expansion rate of 0.8 ± 0.1% a⁻¹. Lake outburst susceptibility result reveals that a total of twenty-seven potentially dangerous glacial lakes exist in the watershed; 5 have a status of ‘high’ outburst probability, 17 ‘medium’ and 5 ‘low’. The majority of the proglacial lakes in the watershed have significantly enlarged due to the faster melting and calving processes as a result of accelerating increasing long-term average annual trend of temperature (+0.283° Ca⁻¹; 95% confidence level) and homogeneous or slightly declining precipitation.