Oil and gas (O&G) activity has been pervasive in the Mississippi River Delta (MRD). Here we review the life cycle of O&G fields in the MRD focusing on the production history and resulting environmental impacts and show how cumulative impacts affect coastal ecosystems. Individual fields can last 40–60 years and most wells are in the final stages of production. Production increased rapidly reaching a peak around 1970 and then declined. Produced water lagged O&G and was generally higher during declining O&G production, making up about 70% of total liquids. Much of the wetland loss in the delta is associated with O&G activities. These have contributed in three major ways to wetland loss including alteration of surface hydrology, induced subsidence due to fluids removal and fault activation, and toxic stress due to spilled oil and produced water. Changes in surface hydrology are related to canal dredging and spoil placement. As canal density increases, the density of natural channels decreases. Interconnected canal networks often lead to saltwater intrusion. Spoil banks block natural overland flow affecting exchange of water, sediments, chemicals, and organisms. Lower wetland productivity and reduced sediment input leads to enhanced surficial subsidence. Spoil banks are not permanent but subside and compact over time and many spoil banks no longer have subaerial expression. Fluid withdrawal from O&G formations leads to induced subsidence and fault activation. Formation pore pressure decreases, which lowers the lateral confining stress acting in the formation due to poroelastic coupling between pore pressure and stress. This promotes normal faulting in an extensional geological environment like the MRD, which causes surface subsidence in the vicinity of the faults. Induced reservoir compaction results in a reduction of reservoir thickness. Induced subsidence occurs in two phases especially when production rate is high. The first phase is compaction of the reservoir itself while the second phase is caused by a slow drainage of pore pressure in bounding shales that induces time-delayed subsidence associated with shale compaction. This second phase can continue for decades, even after most O&G has been produced, resulting in subsidence over much of an oil field that can be greater than surface subsidence due to altered hydrology. Produced water is water brought to the surface during O&G extraction and an estimated 2 million barrels per day were discharged into Louisiana coastal wetlands and waters from nearly 700 sites. This water is a mixture of either liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons, high salinity (up to 300 ppt) water, dissolved and suspended solids such as sand or silt, and injected fluids and additives associated with exploration and production activities and it is toxic to many estuarine organisms including vegetation and fauna. Spilled oil has lethal and sub-lethal effects on a wide range of estuarine organisms. The cumulative effect of alterations in surface hydrology, induced subsidence, and toxins interact such that overall impacts are enhanced. Restoration of coastal wetlands degraded by O&G activities should be informed by these impacts.

Water intrusion into a building envelope describes the unwanted movement of water or vapor into a building, where it causes damage. Various factors dictate water intrusion category determination and classification. These factors include, but are not limited to, the type and degree of water intrusion, the source and route of the contamination, and exposure time, as well as geographical environmental conditions. This comprehensive research paper looked at the literature and the science to explore the bases for indoor environmental professional (IEP) classification and category determination, but also the science behind the effects of water intrusion on building materials (BM). The efficacy of building materials once degradation has occurred and any accelerating effects impacting the efficiency of building materials and their loss of integrity were closely examined in terms of material microstructural and compositional changes. The damaging effects of moisture and heat on building materials are called hygrothermal damage, which compromises the properties and use of materials. Both aspects of building integrity, i.e., water intrusion and structural deterioration, should be of concern when mitigating and remediating the intrusion of moisture. Previous research on the clarification of water categories for water intrusions is lacking. Past approaches to water classification have lacked universal scientific clarity and understanding. In addition to a need to understand the effects that water category might have on building materials and their corresponding degree of degradation, more science and reviews are needed. The need for proper class and category determination for the remediation of water intrusion within buildings is the first step toward achieving correct mitigation to ensure human health and safety. The possible adverse health effects of water intrusion need focus and cohesion for the determination of categories. We know that the final determination of water categories differs according to the degree of contamination over time and the degree of a given class of water intrusion; however, what role do the route and initial water contamination play in the determination of the category? The following paper aims to provide not only a review of the science but also an elaboration of the category determination process and the degradation effects on building materials which should be considered, as well as possible avenues of scientific research.

This paper addresses methods and guidelines for assessing damages and distinguishing between damages caused by wind, flood and storm surge to homes and buildings from a hurricane event. These methods are based on an engineering approach that utilizes forensics, engineering science along with codes and standards to determine the extent of the damages and the various causations. A general approach to the examination of the risks is outlined, and the elements that a report should contain are addressed. Emphasis is placed on the decisive role that corroborating information plays in determining the extent and the proximate cause of damages.

This paper addresses wind driven rain (WDR) forces that are additional forces on buildings and structures above wind loads as defined in ASCE 07. WDR is described as raindrops falling into a wind field at an angle from vertical under the effects of gravity and wind drag forces. A WDR force computational model is developed to include the influence of wind, building geometry and rainfall intensity. The magnitude of these additional forces may be significant in designing buildings and structures to withstand tropical storm and hurricane force winds along with heavy rainfall. In addition, WDR causes hygrothermal damages to the building envelope.

This paper addresses methods of assessing damages to buildings and homes based on an engineering approach that utilizes forensics along with codes and standards to determine the extent of the damages. The various causations of the damages include wind, fire, floods, earthquakes and blasts. A general approach to the examination of the risks is outlined, and the elements that a report should contain are addressed. Emphasis is placed on the decisive role that corroborating information plays in determining the extent and the proximate cause of damages.

During Hurricane Rita storm-surge data (hydrographs) were recorded by the USGS from 47 sensors, including date and time, temperature, and pressure (barometric and water), and all adjusted water-pressure data to water-level elevations above the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88). These data are compared to high-water mark (HWM) data from numerous sites and are used to evaluate the accuracy of the computed water-level data. FEMA also measured and recorded HWM data using field crews that look for evidence of peak elevation of flooding caused by storm surge followed by surveying these elevations. In addition, FEMA crews also collected HWM data for riverine type flooding inland from the coast. Louisiana State University (LSU) also collected HWM data along the Louisiana Coast. The study area covers southwestern Louisiana and southeastern Texas and encompasses about 4,000 square miles. It is bounded to the north by Interstate 10 (I-10); to the south by the Gulf of Mexico; to the east by the cities of Lafayette, Abbeville, and Intracoastal City, La.; and to the west by the cities of Beaumont, Port Arthur, and Sabine Pass, Texas.