The recent Eyjafjallajökull (Iceland) eruption strikingly underlined the vulnerability of a globalized society to the atmospheric dispersal of volcanic clouds from even moderate-size eruptions. Ash aggregation controls volcanic clouds dispersal by prematurely removing fine particles from the cloud and depositing them more proximally. Physical parameters of ash aggregates have been modeled and derived from ash fallout deposits of past eruptions, yet aggregate sedimentation has eluded direct measurement, limiting our ability to predict the dispersal of volcanic clouds. Here we use field-based, high-speed video analysis together with laboratory experiments to provide the first in situ investigation and parameterization of the physical features and settling dynamics of ash aggregates from a volcanic cloud. In May 2010, high-speed video footage was obtained of both ash particles and aggregates settling from the Eyjafjallajökull volcano eruption cloud at a distance of 7 km from the vent; fallout samples were collected simultaneously. Experimental laboratory determinations of the density, morphology, and settling velocity of individual ash particles enable their distinction from aggregates. The combination of field and experimental analyses allows a full characterization of the size, settling velocity, drag coefficient, and density distributions of ash aggregates as well as the size distribution of their component particles. We conclude that ash aggregation resulted in a tenfold increase in mass sedimentation rate from the cloud, aggravating the ash hazard locally and modifying cloud dispersal regionally. This study provides a valuable tool for monitoring explosive eruptions, capable of providing robust input parameters for models of cloud dispersal and consequent hazard forecast.

Solfatara crater is located within the Campi Flegrei caldera to the west of Naples (Italy). It is one of the largest fumarolic manifestations known, and the rocks hosting the hydrothermal system are affected by intense hydrothermal alteration. Alteration can result in changes of degassing behavior, and in the formation of a cap rock thereby increasing the probability of phreatic eruptions. Here, we investigate the effects of alunitic (solfataric) alteration on the mineralogy, the physical properties (porosity, density, permeability) and the mechanical properties (strength) of the rocks involved, as well as its influence on fragmentation and ejection behavior. Our results show that the pristine mineralogy of deposits from the vicinity of the Solfatara cryptodome and from Pisciarelli is almost completely replaced by amorphous silica and alunite. The differences in the degree of alteration among the samples series are reflected in the investigated properties and behavior as well as in the analysis of the experimentally generated particles. Alunitic alteration increases porosity and permeability, whereas it reduces density, elastic wave velocity and strength leading to higher fragmentation and ejection speeds for the sample series examined in this study. Our results also show that alteration results in the generation of a high fraction of fines (particle sizes <10μm) during fragmentation, mainly composed of alunite crystals. Due to their potential for inducing chronic disease, dispersion of such material should represent a serious health hazard on a local scale and the evaluation of precautions should be considered

Over the last decade, field investigations, laboratory experiments, geophysical exploration and petrological, geochemical and numerical modelling have provided insight into the mechanisms of phreatic and hydrothermal eruptions. These eruptions are driven by sudden flashing of ground- or hydrothermal water to steam and are strongly influenced by the interaction of host rock and hydrothermal system. Aquifers hosted in volcanic edifices, calderas and rift environments can be primed for instability by alteration processes affecting rock permeability and/or strength, while magmatic fluid injection(s), earthquakes or other subtle triggers can promote explosive failure. Gas emission, ground deformation and seismicity may provide short- to medium-term forerunner signals of these eruptions, yet a definition of universal precursors remains a key challenge. Looking forward in the next 10 years, improved warning and hazard assessment will require integration of field and experimental data with models combining case studies, as well as development of new monitoring methods integrated by machine learning approaches.

Hydrothermal explosions frequently occur in geothermal areas showing various mechanisms and energies of explosivity. Their deposits, though generally hardly recognised or badly preserved, provide important insights to quantify the dynamics and energy of these poorly understood explosive events. Furthermore the host rock lithology of the geothermal system adds a control on the efficiency in the energy release during an explosion. We present results from a detailed study of recent hydrothermal explosion deposits within an active geothermal area at Kverkfjöll, a central volcano at the northern edge of Vatnajökull. On August 15th 2013, a small jökulhlaup occurred when the Gengissig ice-dammed lake drained at Kverkfjöll. The lake level dropped by approximately 30 m, decreasing pressure on the lake bed and triggering several hydrothermal explosions on the 16th. Here, a multidisciplinary approach combining detailed field work, laboratory studies, and models of the energetics of explosions with information on duration and amplitudes of seismic signals, has been used to analyse the mechanisms and characteristics of these hydrothermal explosions. Field and laboratory studies were also carried out to help constrain the sedimentary sequence involved in the event. The explosions lasted for 40–50 s and involved the surficial part of an unconsolidated and hydrothermally altered glacio-lacustrine deposit composed of pyroclasts, lavas, scoriaceous fragments, and fine-grained welded or loosely consolidated aggregates, interbedded with clay-rich levels. Several small fans of ejecta were formed, reaching a distance of 1 km north of the lake and covering an area of approximately 0.3 km2, with a maximum thickness of 40 cm at the crater walls. The material (volume of approximately 104 m3) has been ejected by the expanding boiling fluid, generated by a pressure failure affecting the surficial geothermal reservoir. The maximum thermal, craterisation and ejection energies, calculated for the explosion areas, are on the order of 1011, 1010 and 109 J, respectively. Comparison of these with those estimated by the volume of the ejecta and the crater sizes, yields good agreement. We estimate that approximately 30% of the available thermal energy was converted into mechanical energy during this event. The residual energy was largely dissipated as heat, while only a small portion was converted into seismic energy. Estimation of the amount of freshly-fragmented clasts in the ejected material obtained from SEM morphological analyses, reveals that a low but significant energy consumption by fragmentation occurred. Decompression experiments were performed in the laboratory mimicking the conditions due to the drainage of the lake. Experimental results confirm that only a minor amount of energy is consumed by the creation of new surfaces in fragmentation, whereas most of the fresh fragments derive from the disaggregation of aggregates. Furthermore, ejection velocities of the particles (40–50 m/s), measured via high-speed videos, are consistent with those estimated from the field. The multidisciplinary approach used here to investigate hydrothermal explosions has proven to be a valuable tool which can provide robust constraints on energy release and partitioning for such small-size yet hazardous, steam-explosion events

Steam‐driven eruptions, both phreatic and hydrothermal, expel exclusively fragments of non‐juvenile rocks disintegrated by the expansion of water as liquid or gas phase. As their violence is related to the magnitude of the decompression work that can be performed by fluid expansion, these eruptions may occur with variable degrees of explosivity. In this study we investigate the influence of liquid fraction and rock petrophysical properties on the steam‐driven explosive energy. A series of fine‐grained heterogeneous tuffs from the Campi Flegrei caldera were investigated for their petrophysical properties. The rapid depressurization of various amounts of liquid water within the rock pore space can yield highly variable fragmentation and ejection behaviors for the investigated tuffs. Our results suggest that the pore liquid fraction controls the stored explosive energy with an increasing liquid fraction within the pore space increasing the explosive energy. Overall, the energy released by steam flashing can be estimated to be 1 order of magnitude higher than for simple (Argon) gas expansion and may produce a higher amount of fine material even under partially saturated conditions. The energy surplus in the presence of steam flashing leads to a faster fragmentation with respect to gas expansion and to higher ejection velocities imparted to the fragmented particles. Moreover, weak and low permeability rocks yield a maximum fine fraction. Using experiments to unravel the energetics of steam‐driven eruptions has yielded estimates for several parameters controlling their explosivity. These findings should be considered for both modeling and evaluation of the hazards associated with steam‐driven eruptions.