Vagina is one of the crucial parts of the female reproductive system and is often afflicted by various diseases. Vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) is the most common disease caused by Candida species. VVC affects nearly 75% of women at least once in their lifetime and exhibits a high recurrence rate. Current firstline treatments for VVC include antifungal agents such as azoles, polyenes and echinocandins. Emerging therapies like herbal remedies, probiotics and immunotherapeutic vaccines are also available, with azoles being the most commonly used. While effective, these therapies are often limited by drawbacks, including resistance development, adverse effects and suboptimal therapeutic outcomes. Conventional forms of dosage, such as creams, tablets and intravenous infusions, have shown limited success in addressing the complexity of VVC, particularly biofilm formation, which impedes therapeutic efficacy. To overcome these challenges, novel drug delivery systems (NDDS) are being explored, including lipid-based carriers, inorganic nanocarriers, microneedles, nanofibers and in situ gels, which offer enhanced drug delivery and improved bioavailability. Additionally, polymers used in vaginal drug delivery have shown potential in improving the stability and release profiles of formulations. In this review, a comprehensive overview of the pathophysiology and therapeutic strategies has been provided, along with recent advancements in novel drug delivery systems. It highlights their potential and ability to overcome current therapeutic challenges and pave the way for more effective and patient-friendly management of the condition.

Hyperpigmentation is a dermatological condition characterized by excessive melanin production, resulting in skin darkening. Intrinsic and extrinsic mediators, including ultraviolet (UV) radiation, hormonal changes, inflammation, and genetic predisposition, contribute to hyperpigmentation pathogenesis. The current review thoroughly examines the biological processes involved in hyperpigmentation, with particular emphasis on its signaling pathways, particularly the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), wingless-related integration site (Wnt)/β-catenin, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt), and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), thereby providing mechanistic insights that may facilitate the development of effective treatments. The review also evaluates the safety, toxicity, and therapeutic efficacy of TYR inhibitors, arbutin, azelaic acid, ellagic acid, kojic acid, resveratrol, and the melanosome inhibitor niacinamide, for managing hyperpigmentation. Additionally, the review summarizes the in vitro and in vivo studies of these agents and other emerging plant extracts. Recent advances in the use of plant extracts for hyperpigmentation have shown promising efficacy; nevertheless, their translation into clinical and commercial applications remains limited. This limited translation might be attributed to the challenges related to standardization and the paucity of clinical evidence regarding long-term safety. Moreover, ongoing studies on natural anti-hyperpigmentation agents have highlighted the critical role of patent analyses in the advancement of biomedical research. This review provides a strategic direction for researchers to assess the safety, efficacy, and toxicity profiles of natural anti-hyperpigmentation agents.