This paper proposes a new planning framework to determine the optimal location, capacity, and types of EV charging stations (EVCSs) in multi-energy systems (MESs). We propose a two-stage stochastic programming approach -with scenario-based algorithms-that explicitly considers vehicle-to-grid (V2G) peculiarities (four-quadrant operation and stochastic human factors influence: V2G willingness, walking distance, and charging patterns). Considering those factors together with MES uncertainties -RES generation, load demands, and electricity price-enables a comprehensive study of V2G and MES impact on EVCS planning. The proposed approach is applied to both a purely electric distribution network (EDN) and an MES to analyze the interplay of EVCSs in different energy domains, in consideration of different V2G contracts. The obtained results underline that the sole consideration of the EDN can lead to non-optimal results, while the more comprehensive analysis leads to optimal planning of all energy resources and cost savings. Finally, we analyse how each considered factor individually impacts EVCSs planning.

Real-time simulations refer to the simulations of a physical system where model equations for one time-step are solved within the same time period as in reality. An FPGA/CPU-based real-time simulation platform is presented in this paper, with a full-electric vehicle model implemented in a central processing unit (CPU) board and an electric drive model implemented in a field programmable gate arrays (FPGA) board. It has been a challenge to interface two models solved with two different processors. In this paper, one open-loop and three closed-loop interfaces are proposed. Real-time simulation results show that the best method is to transmit electric machine speed from the vehicle model to the electric derive model, with feedback electric machine torque calculated in FPGA. In addition, a virtual vehicle testing tool (CarMaker) is used when building the vehicle model, achieving more accurate modeling of vehicle subsystems. The presented platform can be used to verify advanced vehicle control functions during hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) testing. Vehicle anti-slip control is used as an example here. Finally, experiments were performed by connecting the real-time platform with a back-to-back electric machine test bench. Results of torque, rotor speed, and d&q axis currents are all in good agreement between simulations and experiments.

This paper presents an operational strategy for Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) capable charging stations in multi-energy systems (MES). We present a novel model predictive control (MPC) formulation based on the operation of four-quadrant charging stations and the behaviour of Electric Vehicle (EV) drivers. The presented approach enables V2G capable charging units to serve multiple functions, including voltage regulation, power loss reduction, and MES energy management. Thus, the proposed MPC approach reduces violations of operational limits and improves the efficient use of MES components, such as Photovoltaic systems and heat pumps. MPC with a V2G mode regulator is implemented to ensure efficient, real-time operation of the MES. The proposed strategy is evaluated using a realistic MES inspired by the Forschungszentrum Jülich campus. Further tests conducted on a modified version of the IEEE 123-bus system demonstrate the scalability of the proposed V2G algorithm.