Various relaxation techniques could benefit from merging with virtual reality (VR) technologies, as these technologies are easily applicable, involving, and user-friendly. To date, it is unclear which relaxation technique using biofeedback combined with VR technology is the most effective. The study aimed to compare the effectiveness of brief VR-based biofeedback-assisted relaxation techniques including electroencephalographic biofeedback, mindfulness-based biofeedback, galvanic skin response biofeedback, and respiratory biofeedback. Forty-three healthy volunteers (age 34.7 ± 7.2 years), comprising 28 (65%) women and 15 (35%) men, were enrolled in the study. All the participants were exposed to four distinct relaxation sessions according to a computer-generated random sequence. The efficacy of relaxation methods was evaluated by examining psychological, physiological, and biochemical stress indicators. All VR-based relaxation techniques reduced salivary steroid hormone (i.e., cortisol, cortisone, and total glucocorticoid) levels and increased galvanic skin response values. Similarly, all interventions led to a significantly reduced subjectively perceived psychological strain level. Three out of the four interventions (i.e., electroencephalographic, respiratory, and galvanic skin response-based biofeedback relaxation sessions) resulted in a decreased self-reported fatigue level. We suggest that newly developed VR-based relaxations techniques are potential tools for stress reduction and might be particularly suitable for individuals who are not capable of adhering to a strict and time-consuming stress management intervention schedule.

BACKGROUND:The high prevalence of cardiovascular diseases cannot be explained completely by conventional risk factors such as older age, smoking, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, obesity, and dyslipidemia. Results of recent studies indicate that chro...

Backgound: Stress system consists of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the locus caeruleus/norepinephrine-autonomic nervous system (ANS). Traditionally, HPA axis activity is evaluated by measuring its end-product cortisol while the activity of ANS is assessed using heart rate variability (HRV) indices. Alterations in cortisol levels and HRV measures during laboratory-based stress tasks were extensively studied in previous research. However, scarce data exist on the associations of HRV measures with the levels of other adrenal steroid hormones under baseline conditions. Thus, we aimed to evaluate the activity of HPA axis by measuring salivary cortisol, cortisone, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) levels and their ratios and to examine its association with HRV measures in a sample of healthy young and middle-aged adults. Methods: For each participant (n=40), three data collection sessions taking place at the same time of the day were scheduled within five working days. Participants completed a self-reported questionnaire on sociodemographic and lifestyle characteristics, filled out Perceived Stress Scale and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Also, saliva samples were collected and physiological measures including resting HR and HRV were recorded during three data collection sessions. Results: Statistically significant associations between diminished parasympathetic vagal tone evaluated by time-domain HRV measures and higher salivary cortisol, lower DHEA levels, as well as increased DHEA to cortisol ratio were found. Also, physiological stress indicators (i.e. HRV) showed greater intrindividual stability compared with biochemical biomarkers (i. e. salivary steroid hormones) within the period of five days. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that both cortisol and DHEA mediate the link between two stress-sensitive homeostatic systems.

Psychological stress exposure is associated with long-lasting health effects including memory problems, depression, aches and pains, eating disorders, and alcohol or drug use. Thus, there is a need to develop effective stress management strategies that are easy to learn and practice. Respiratory biofeedback is an evidence-based stress management technique presenting breathing-related information to help subjects learn specific breathing skills for relaxation. It is suggested that the use of biofeedback techniques in conjunction with virtual reality makes biofeedback training an even more effective tool for stress management. The current study aimed to investigate dynamics of distinct stress indicators before, after, as well as during one brief virtual reality-based respiratory biofeedback session. Thirty-nine healthy volunteers participated in the study. Individuals provided their saliva samples and evaluated their mood status, fatigue, and strain level before and after the session. The subjects’ heart and respiratory rate, heart rate variability, and galvanic skin response measures were recorded during the session. The results showed that after single 12 min relaxation session, there was a significant decrease in salivary cortisol concentration, heart and respiratory rate, as well as decrease in skin conductance values. Self-reported strain, fatigue level, and mood status also significantly improved. VR-based respiratory-biofeedback-assisted relaxation sessions might serve as an effective stress management strategy, as even single session had positive effects on subjects’ autonomic nervous system (ANS) and hypothalamic-pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis activity, as well as self-reported fatigue, strain level, and mood status.

Compulsory basic military training is characterized not only by being challenging but also by being stressful. Assuming a high frequency of perceived stress events as a negative outcome of training, this article provides evidence on how the perceived frequency of stressful situations is affected by three types of factors: (i) biological stress response variables measured by hair steroid hormone levels, (ii) personality traits measured using the Big Five personality test, and (iii) group cohesion measures in military squads. A total of 112 conscripts in 11 squads participated in the research at the beginning (T1), in the middle (T2), and at the end (T3) of compulsory basic military training. Hair steroid hormone levels (cortisol, cortisone, and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)) levels were measured by liquid mass spectrometry; other data were collected using self-report questionnaires. The results of the Poisson regression analysis indicated that hair steroid hormone cortisol had a statistically significantly impact and could increase the perceived frequency of stressful situations by up to 1.317 (e^0.275, T2) times. The concentrations of other hormones (cortisone = 1.157, e^0.146, T3 and DHEA = 1.020, e^0.020, T3) also had a statistically significant effect. Other factors had a decreasing effect on the frequency. Extraversion was significant with an effect of 0.907 (e^−0.098, T2) and 0.847 (e^−0.166, T3), while task cohesion had an effect of 0.946 (e^−0.056) and norm cohesion of 0.954 (e^−0.047). The research indicates that the three groups of factors affect the perceived frequency of stressful situations during compulsory basic military training, but their impacts are considerably different.