Cancer remains one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide, with lung, breast, and colorectal cancers among the most prevalent and lethal malignancies. In recent years, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as important mediators of intercellular communication and promising tools in oncology. EVs are membrane-bound vesicles released by most cell types and carry diverse biomolecules, including nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and metabolites derived from their parent cells. Their presence in biological fluids makes them attractive candidates for liquid biopsy applications and minimally invasive cancer diagnosis. In addition, EVs have gained considerable attention as therapeutic platforms due to their biocompatibility, stability, and ability to deliver functional cargo to recipient cells. Beyond mammalian EVs, plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) are increasingly being investigated as scalable and potentially safe nanocarriers for biomedical applications. This review summarizes current advances in the use of EVs for cancer diagnosis and therapy, with particular emphasis on their role as biomarkers, drug-delivery systems, and emerging therapeutic agents. Furthermore, the review discusses current challenges and future perspectives related to EV isolation, characterization, and clinical translation in oncology.

Maclura pomifera (Raf.) C.K. Schneid., commonly known as Osage orange, is an ornamental tree widely distributed in urban and rural environments due to its resilience to abiotic stress, fast growth, and adaptability to marginal soils. However, its fruits and pruning residues are largely underutilized and typically discarded as green waste, despite representing a rich and sustainable source of bioactive phytochemicals, particularly phenolic acids and prenylated flavonoids with recognized antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. The present study aimed to characterize the phytochemical profile and biological activities of aqueous, ethanolic, methanolic, and phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) extracts obtained from M. pomifera leaves. Comprehensive LC-MS/MS analysis was employed to identify and compare the major bioactive constituents across extraction systems. Among the tested solvents, the PBS extract demonstrated the most favorable overall performance, exhibiting the highest extraction efficiency and enhanced total phenolic content (TPC). The PBS extract was therefore selected for further application and incorporated into an experimental zootechnical feed based on Lolium multiflorum (Italian ryegrass), a widely used forage in ruminant nutrition. LC-MS/MS-based evaluation of the functionalized feed confirmed a substantial enrichment in key antioxidant compounds, including flavonoids, flavan-3-ols, and phenolic acids, indicating efficient transfer of bioactive metabolites into the forage matrix. Overall, the results highlight the potential of M. pomifera leaves as a sustainable source of high-value bioactive compounds and demonstrate their applicability in the development of functional feeds aimed at improving the nutritional and oxidative profile of conventional forages.