Indonesia is the largest archipelagic country in the world, with 17,000 islands of varying sizes and elevations, from lowlands to very high mountains, stretching more than 5000 km eastward from Sabang in Aceh to Merauke in Papua. Although occupying only 1.3% of the world’s land area, Indonesia possesses the third-largest rainforest and the second-highest level of biodiversity, with very high species diversity and endemism. However, during the last two decades, Indonesia has been known as a country with a high level of deforestation, a producer of smoke from burning forests and land, and a producer of carbon emissions. The aim of this paper is to review the environmental history and the long process of Indonesian forest management towards achieving environmental sustainability and community welfare. To do this, we analyze the milestones of Indonesian forest management history, present and future challenges, and provide strategic recommendations toward a viable Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) system. Our review showed that the history of forestry management in Indonesia has evolved through a long process, especially related to contestation over the control of natural resources and supporting policies and regulations. During the process, many efforts have been applied to reduce the deforestation rate, such as a moratorium on permitting primary natural forest and peat land, land rehabilitation and soil conservation, environmental protection, and other significant regulations. Therefore, these efforts should be maintained and improved continuously in the future due to their significant positive impacts on a variety of forest areas toward the achievement of viable SFM. Finally, we conclude that the Indonesian government has struggled to formulate sustainable forest management policies that balance economic, ecological, and social needs, among others, through developing and implementing social forestry instruments, developing and implementing human resource capacity, increasing community literacy, strengthening forest governance by eliminating ambiguity and overlapping regulations, simplification of bureaucracy, revitalization of traditional wisdom, and fair law enforcement.

Indonesia’s tropical peatlands are one of the world’s largest carbon sinks, and they are facing the threat of extensive degradation and conversion. The Indonesian government is committed to peat restoration. However, restoration is still a costly, top-down approach lacking community participation, and is focused on the 3R scheme (rewetting, revegetation, and revitalization). Peatland restoration businesses are part of the innovative effort to finance this endeavor. Unfortunately, there is not much information available about the pre-conditions required to create a restoration business. This study seeks to understand the enabling conditions for the development of peatland restoration, with a focus on the tamanu oil business, and to assess whether the same situation might apply in the context of the restoration of degraded peatland. PEST analysis is used to describe the macro-environmental factors of the tamanu oil business and its development opportunities in degraded peatlands. Tamanu oil-based peat ecosystem restoration businesses offer good prospects because of the growing it has grown the bioenergy and biomedical markets, and they can cover a larger area of degraded peatland landscape. For tamanu oil businesses to succeed in peat ecosystem restoration, we recommend that policy documents at various levels include tamanu as a priority commodity for peatland restoration and alternative community businesses, followed by planting programs by all stakeholders. The government and social organizations must take positions as initiators and catalysts, establish a significant number and extent of pilot tamanu plantations, and create a mutually supportive business climate between entrepreneurs and peatland managers.

Climate change poses significant challenges to ecosystems globally, demanding innovative methods for environmental conservation and restoration. Restoration initiatives require significant amounts of appropriate vegetation that is both adaptive and tolerant to the specific environmental factors. This study introduces an adaptive-vegetation model designed to support ecosystem resilience in the face of climate change. Traditional restoration methods often neglect dynamic environmental conditions and ecosystem interactions, but the model employs real-time data and predictive analytics to adapt strategies to evolving climate variables. The model takes a comprehensive approach, incorporating climate projections, soil health metrics, species adaptability, and hydrological patterns to inform restoration practices. By using a mix of adaptable native species, the model promotes biodiversity. In conclusion, according to the findings of our review, paludiculture and agroforestry could be implemented as models for improving climate resilience, particularly in tropical degraded peat swamp forests. These two models could improve the environment, the economy, and social functions. Finally, improving all three of these factors improves ecological stability. This adaptive-vegetation model represents a significant shift from static, uniform restoration approaches to dynamic, data-driven strategies tailored to specific environments. The future research directions underscore the need for ongoing innovation in conservation practices to safeguard ecosystems amid unprecedented environmental changes. Future efforts will focus on enhancing the model with advanced machine learning techniques and expanding its application to additional ecological contexts.

Nutrient resorption (NR) is a critical ecological process in forest ecosystems. However, there is a lack of knowledge about this process in the peatlands of Indonesia, and this may be seen as a research gap. In the present study, NR in young trees of three native species (Macaranga pruinosa, Cratoxylum arborescens, and Macaranga gigantea) and one exotic species (Acacia crassicarpa) in a drained tropical peatland was investigated. This study was conducted at an experimental plot in Pelalawan-Riau, Indonesia. Nutrient resorption efficiency (RE) and proficiency (RP) were calculated and correlated with soil properties, foliar nutrients, and growth variables. Our results revealed that M. pruinosa exhibited an RE value for phosphorus (PRE) that was 64% higher than that for the second-ranked native species but still significantly (84%) lower than that for A. crassicarpa. RE values for nitrogen (NRE) and potassium (KRE) did not differ significantly among species, ranging from 39 to 42% and 41 to 56%, respectively, for native species, with figures of 45% and 66%, respectively, for A. crassicarpa. Finally, PRE exhibited strong and significant correlations with PRP and tree growth, a finding that indicated that the uptake and conservation of P nutrients are essential for the fitness of the three native species. Overall, the results of the present study may be seen as beneficial for species selection and the management of nutrients by those engaged in restoration of tropical peatland forests.

Forest and land fires are a high source of emissions in South Sumatera. In line with the national policy, South Sumatera Province commits in reducing emission, include emission from the forest and land fire. This research was aimed to assess carbon loss affected by fire in the year of 2015 that covered 3 districts in South Sumatera i.e Musi Banyuasin, Banyuasin, and Musi Rawas. The research was conducted by remeasurement of carbon stocks plots on 4 forests and land type i.e. secondary peat swamp forest, secondary dryland forest, bushes swamp, and forest plantation. Carbon stocks measuring are conducted on sample plots in a rectangular shape of 20 m x 50 m of size for various types of natural forest and a circle shape in the radius of 11.29 cm and 7.98 cm respectively for forest plantation of < 4 years and > 4 years old. Furthermore, carbon stocks in each plot are measured for 3 carbon pools of above-ground biomass, deadwood and litter. The result shows that carbon loss was varying on each forest and land type. The largest number of carbon loss occur on secondary peat swamp forest of 94.2 t/ha that equivalent to the emission of 345.4 t CO2eq. The second largest of carbon loss occur on secondary dryland forest of 36.3 t/ha following by forest plantation and bushes swamp of 18.5 t/ha and 13.5 t/ha.

Tropical peatlands are vital carbon reservoirs, yet their degradation and partial revegetation leave uncertainties about post-revegetation carbon dynamics, particularly CO ₂ emissions across different vegetation types. This study aimed to assess the emissions from four revegetated peatland cover types in the Sriwijaya Botanical Gardens, South Sumatera. Emission measurements representing soil-atmosphere CO ₂ fluxes using soil chambers were conducted weekly from September 18, 2024, to February 12, 2025, in conjunction with observations of groundwater levels, soil temperatures, and air temperatures. Weekly emission rates were extrapolated to estimated annual CO ₂ emission expressed in ton ha ⁻¹ year ⁻¹ . Emission data were collected using an infrared gas analyzer on four peatland cover types: Shorea belangeran (belangeran) stands planted in 2015 and 2020; Fagraea fragrans (tembesu) stands planted in 2015; and a secondary forest dominated by Melaleuca leucadendron (gelam). Measurements were conducted in triplicate for each cover type. The results showed that the highest CO₂ emissions were recorded in the Belangeran 2020 stand, closely followed by the Tembesu 2015 stand, with nearly identical values of 36.6 and 36.0 t CO₂ ha ⁻¹ year ⁻¹ , respectively. However, these values were not significantly different from emissions measured in other peatland cover types. The elevated emissions in the Belangeran 2020 stand correlate with higher annual average soil and air temperatures (30.2 °C and 31.1 °C, respectively), resulting from a fire event in 2019. In the Tembesu 2015 stand, elevated emissions are primarily linked to a deeper groundwater level (−52 cm) and potential contributions from root respiration. Environmental variables, such as groundwater level, soil temperature, and air temperature showed significant relationships with CO₂ emissions across all peatland cover types in the Sriwijaya Botanical Gardens, although their relative influences varied among stands. These findings offer additional insights into the biophysical drivers of peatland carbon fluxes and underscore the importance of species selection, canopy structure, and groundwater level dynamics in enhancing revegetation outcomes and supporting peatland management strategies.