Trillions of microbes have evolved with and continue to live on and within human beings. A variety of environmental factors can affect intestinal microbial imbalance, which has a close relationship with human health and disease. Here, we focus on the interactions between the human microbiota and the host in order to provide an overview of the microbial role in basic biological processes and in the development and progression of major human diseases such as infectious diseases, liver diseases, gastrointestinal cancers, metabolic diseases, respiratory diseases, mental or psychological diseases, and autoimmune diseases. We also review important advances in techniques associated with microbial research, such as DNA sequencing, metabonomics, and proteomics combined with computation-based bioinformatics. Current research on the human microbiota has become much more sophisticated and more comprehensive. Therefore, we propose that research should focus on the host-microbe interaction and on cause-effect mechanisms, which could pave the way to an understanding of the role of gut microbiota in health and disease, and provide new therapeutic targets and treatment approaches in clinical practice

The potential health benefits of probiotics may not be realized because of the substantial reduction in their viability during food storage and gastrointestinal transit. Microencapsulation can be used to enhance the resistance of probiotics to unfavorable conditions. A range of oral delivery systems has been developed to increase the level of probiotics reaching the colon including embedding and coating systems. This review introduces emerging strategies for the microencapsulation of probiotics and highlights the key mechanisms of their stress–tolerance properties. Recent in vitro and in vivo models for evaluation of the efficiency of probiotic delivery systems are also reviewed. Encapsulation technologies are required to maintain the viability of probiotics during storage and within the human gut so as to increase their ability to colonize the colon. These technologies work by protecting the probiotics from harsh environmental conditions, as well as increasing their mucoadhesive properties. Typically, the probiotics are either embedded inside or coated with food‐grade materials such as biopolymers or lipids. In some cases, additional components may be coencapsulated to enhance their viability such as nutrients or protective agents. The importance of having suitable in vitro and in vivo models to evaluate the efficiency of probiotic delivery systems is also emphasized.

Orally administered probiotics encounter various challenges on their journey through the mouth, stomach, intestine and colon. The health benefits of probiotics are diminished mainly due to the substantial reduction of viable probiotic bacteria under the harsh conditions in the gastrointestinal tract and the colonization resistance caused by commensal bacteria. In this review, we illustrate the factors affecting probiotic viability and their mucoadhesive properties through their journey in the gastrointestinal tract, including a discussion on various mucosadhesion-related proteins on the probiotic cell surface which facilitate colonization.

The oral bioavailability of lipophilic bioactive molecules can be greatly increased by encapsulating them within engineered lipid nanoparticles (ELNs), such as micelles, microemulsions, nanoemulsions, or solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs). After ingestion, these ELNs are disassembled in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and then reassembled into biological lipid nanoparticles (mixed micelles) in the small intestine. These mixed micelles solubilize and transport lipophilic bioactive components to the epithelial cells. The mixed micelles are then disassembled and reassembled into yet another form of biological lipid nanoparticle [chylomicrons (CMs)] within the enterocyte cells. The CMs carry the bioactive components into the systemic (blood) circulation via the lymphatic system, thereby avoiding first-pass metabolism. This article provides an overview of the various physicochemical and physiological processes responsible for the assembly and disassembly of lipid nanoparticles outside and inside the GIT. This knowledge can be used to design food-grade delivery systems to improve the oral bioavailability of encapsulated lipophilic bioactive components.