El conjunto de tratados de agricultura que se elaboró en al-Andalus ha sido hasta ahora explotado como fuente para aspectos relacionados con la botánica y la historia de las técnicas agrícolas; sin embargo, se ha empleado poco para la obtención de información histórica, aspecto que hemos tratado de enfatizar en este trabajo. Con este objetivo, hemos intentado situar la eclosión de los libros de agricultura en su contexto histórico: el de la revolución económica y demográfica plenomedieval, uno de cuyos aspectos más significativos fue la expansión agrícola impulsada por un estamento de terratenientes, muchos de ellos residentes en las ciudades, que puso en marcha una producción orientada básicamente al mercado. A este grupo social es al que creemos estaban destinados principalmente los libros geopónicos, pues tenía la necesidad y los recursos económicos e intelectuales para aprovecharlos, a diferencia de los pequeños propietarios y las comunidades gentilicias de campesinos que practicaban una agricultura destinada esencialmente al autoabastecimiento. Una vez que reconocemos los libros de agricultura como auténticos manuales de aquellos hacendados, se puede recuperar esa literatura como fuente histórica de primer orden con el fin de conocer el funcionamiento y la organización de ese tipo de propiedad fundiaria en esta fase de la historia de al-Andalus.

This study delves into the multifaceted realm of citrus fruits, exploring their significance and socioeconomic implications from their early introduction to Western Muslim and Renaissance gardens, tracing their journey throughout history. Employing a multidisciplinary approach, drawing from biological, archaeobotanical, iconographic, and textual sources, our study offers a comprehensive exploration of citrus symbolism and cultural significance, integrating historical, artistic, horticultural, and socioeconomic viewpoints. The genus Citrus (Rutaceae) comprises around thirty species and its natural habitat spans from the southern slopes of the Himalayas to China, Southeast Asia, nearby islands, and Queensland. Originating from only four of these species, humans have cultivated hundreds of hybrids and thousands of varieties, harnessing their culinary, medicinal, and ornamental potential worldwide. We delve into the symbolic value of citrus fruits, which have served as indicators of economic status and power. From their early presence in Mediterranean religious rituals to their depiction in opulent Roman art and mythical narratives like the Garden of the Hesperides, citrus fruits have epitomized luxury and desire. Christian lore intertwines them with the forbidden fruit of Eden, while Islamic and Sicilian gardens and Renaissance villas signify their prestige. We analyze diverse perspectives, from moralists to hedonists, and examine their role in shaping global agriculture, exemplified by rare varieties like aurantii foetiferi.

Medieval Islamic bustān gardens in the western Mediterranean played a crucial role in preserving and enriching rose diversity through the cultivation of species from the eastern Mediterranean and western Asia. These gardens, particularly in Al-Andalus, maintained distinctive rose varieties characterized by diverse flower morphology—ranging from white to deep crimson and near-black hues, including various yellow shades—and complex fragrance profiles with multiple olfactory nuances. The botanical heritage from these medieval Islamic gardens demonstrates remarkable persistence, with several of these cultivated rose species still found today in abandoned cortijos and aldeas throughout the mountains of eastern Spain. This study examines the transmission of rose culture through medieval Islamic bustān gardens, analyzing how these gardens served as repositories for ancient cultivars while introducing new varieties from eastern regions. Through examination of historical texts, iconographic evidence, and field documentation of surviving populations, we trace the continuity of medieval Islamic rose cultivation practices and their lasting impact on the rural landscape of eastern Spain. Flower scent is prominent as the leading factor determining preferences for medieval heritage rose cultivars, together with color and shape. The survival of these roses in abandoned settlements provides unique insight into the durability of medieval horticultural systems and the adaptation of cultivated species to semi-wild conditions over centuries.

Background: While archaeological evidence is crucial for understanding the origins of ancient rose varieties in Western Europe, the botanical composition of medieval Islamic gardens remains largely unknown. This study focuses on the rose cultivation at the 12th-century Almunia del Castillejo de Monteagudo in Murcia, Spain, a key Islamic site in al-Andalus. Methods: Morphometric analysis and Bayesian hypothesis testing were applied to characterize rose prickle remains recovered from the site. The prickles were found in stratigraphic contexts above the original garden and yielded post-medieval radiocarbon dates (18th–19th centuries AD). The morphological parameters of the archaeological specimens were statistically compared against reference collections of known rose species to determine their probable botanical origins. Results: The analysis identified two distinct prickle morphotypes. Statistical comparisons indicate these correspond to the white musk rose (Rosa moschata Herrm.) and to yellow roses from the Rosa foetida Herrm. complex (including R. lutea Mill. var. persiana Lem.). Both species are historic introductions from West Asia. The morphometric parameters demonstrated significant diagnostic value for the species-level identification of archaeological rose remains. Conclusion: Despite the post-medieval date of the prickles, the presence of R. moschata and R. foetida suggests the continuity of cultivation for rose species originally already known during the medieval Islamic period. This provides direct archaeological evidence for the role of al-Andalus gardens in the dissemination of West Asian rose diversity, highlighting the lasting impact of medieval Islamic horticulture on the Iberian Peninsula.

Roses held profound cultural and economic significance in ancient Greece and Rome, yet comprehensive documentation of their species diversity, cultivation practices, and horticultural innovations remains fragmented across archaeological, iconographic, and textual sources. This multidisciplinary study synthesizes evidence from classical texts, archaeological remains including recently identified rose stem fragments from Oplontis, and iconographic materials—including frescoes, coins, and mosaics—to reconstruct the horticultural systems and cultural landscape of roses in classical antiquity. Analysis of literary sources, particularly Theophrastus’s fourth-century BCE taxonomic descriptions, reveals systematic cultivation of diverse rose varieties with flowers ranging from white to deep crimson, including yellow variants, characterized by morphologies from simple to double forms and valued for fragrance intensity and re-blooming capacity. Archaeological evidence from sites such as Paestum, Pompeii, and Oplontis, including pollen samples, preserved wood fragments with diagnostic prickle patterns, and fresco representations, documents commercial rose production and specialized cultivation techniques that demonstrate significantly greater morphological diversity than textual sources alone indicate. Field research and collection documentation establish the origins of Mediterranean rose cultivation, while iconographic analysis identifies roses in religious ceremonies, festivals, and daily life contexts. Textual sources provide detailed propagation methods, seasonal management practices, and evidence of Mediterranean hybridization events, alongside extensive documentation of medicinal and cosmetic applications. Economic analysis reveals specialized trade networks, commercial production centers, and diverse applications in perfumery, garland making, and pharmaceutical industries. This research establishes that Greek and Roman civilizations developed sophisticated rose cultivation systems integrating botanical selection, horticultural innovation, and cultural symbolism that directly influenced medieval and Renaissance practices and informed modern trait categorization systems. These findings demonstrate the foundational role of classical antiquity in European rose heritage, revealing how ancient horticultural knowledge, species diversification through hybridization, and cultivation techniques created an unbroken transmission that shaped contemporary rose industries and established conservation priorities for this horticultural heritage.