Monitoring energy consumption in response to rising temperatures has become extremely important in all regions of the globe. The energy required for cooling is a major challenge in West Africa, where the climate is predominantly tropical. Among the various methods for evaluating energy requirements, the degree-day method is best known for its ability to estimate the heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) requirements of buildings. This study used three decades of weather station data to assess the cooling degree days (CDD) in two major West African cities, Kano and Bamako, across a range of base temperatures from 22 °C to 30 °C. The results indicate an increase in cooling degree days for Kano, whereas Bamako experienced a decrease in these parameters over the same period. Nonetheless, Bamako required a relatively higher cooling demand for all base temperatures. Furthermore, the study showed that the years 1998 and 2015 had the most significant impact on Kano and Bamako, with CDD values ranging from 2220 °C-day to 218 °C-day for Kano and from 2425 °C-day to 276 °C-day for Bamako. The study also found that a lower base temperature leads to higher energy consumption, while a higher base temperature leads to lower energy consumption. This information provides a useful reference for governments and policymakers to achieve energy efficiency and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Unplanned urban expansion poses significant challenges to environmental sustainability and urban planning. This study analyzes the spatiotemporal dynamics of Zinder’s urban landscape using Landsat satellite imagery from 1988, 2000, 2011, and 2022. The study applied remote sensing (RS), geographic information system (GIS) techniques, and urban growth models. The random forest classifier, a machine learning algorithm, was used to classify three land use/land cover categories: “vegetation”, “built-up”, and “others”. Zinder’s arid environment is characterized by sparse vegetation, which constitutes a limited but vital component of its landscape. Despite the already sparse vegetation in the area, the findings reveal a 3.5% reduction in vegetation cover between 1988 and 2022, alongside an 11.5% increase in “built-up” areas and an 8% decrease in the “others” category. This loss of already minimal vegetation raises significant concerns about environmental degradation and the exacerbation of desertification risks. Interestingly, urban expansion showed no significant correlation with population growth (r = 0.29, p > 0.5), suggesting that other factors, such as economic activities, infrastructure development, and land use policies, drive land conversion. Edge expansion emerged as the dominant growth type, with a significant directional preference (Chi-Square = 2334.41, p < 0.001) toward major roads and areas with higher accessibility to public services. These findings emphasize the need for strategic urban planning and land management policies to address the drivers of unplanned expansion. Prioritizing sustainable infrastructure development, enforcing land use regulations, and conserving natural landscapes are critical to balancing urban growth with environmental preservation, ensuring resilience and sustainability in Zinder.