Antibiotic resistance (ABR) is an emerging global threat to public health. Substantial evidence has indicated that community pharmacists (CPs) can play a critical role in managing the ever-increasing threat of antibiotic resistance. This study aimed to determine the knowledge, attitude, and practices of CPs (n = 180) towards antibiotics and antibiotic resistance as well as to improve the rational use of antibiotics. A two-phase mixed-methods (quantitative and qualitative) online study was conducted in Pakistan from August 2019 to March 2020 by using validated questionnaires and semi-structured interview data. Different statistical methods were used to tabulate the quantitative data, whereas inductive thematic analysis was conducted to categorize themes from the qualitative data and to draw conclusions. Approximately 64.4% of the CPs were male (mean: 29–33 years old). Overall, CPs had good knowledge of and were familiar with multidrug-resistant organisms and their roles in ABR (65.6%, median = 1, and IQR = 1), although their knowledge was poor in differentiating some antibiotic groups with their respective ABR patterns (31.1%, median = 1, and IQR = 1). Most CPs have a positive attitude towards antibiotics, with most (90.0%) identifying ABR as a critical issue in public health (median = 1 and IQR = 0). Overall, CPs’ practices towards antibiotics were somewhat acceptable, where they leaned towards educating patients about the rational use of antibiotics (52.8%, median = 1, and IQR = 1). The two main themes discovered (antibiotics and counseling of patients) were related to self-medication, while educational intervention is the main subtheme. ABR is multifactorial, with subthemes related to budget, time constraints, incompetent staff, the absence of CPs, the lack of training, and the enforcement of laws and regulations being the needs of the hour in Pakistan. Effective antibiotic stewardship programs, patient education, and awareness campaigns about antibiotics and ABR along with training of the CPs are important factors that have to be addressed in a timely manner.

Introduction: The excessive consumption of antibiotics is a significant contributor to antimicrobial resistance, especially in children. Children are often advised antibiotics for viral infections. In developing countries, drugstores are a prime source of easy access to nonprescription antibiotics. Moreover, in Pakistan, their irrational use is an “everyday routine”. The study, therefore, aimed to evaluate the dispensing of nonprescription antibiotics to children. Methods: Using pediatric acute diarrhea and acute upper respiratory infection as disease scenarios, a simulated client, cross-sectional study was conducted in Lahore, Pakistan, to explore the antibiotics’ ease of availability at both categories of drugstores (pharmacies and medical stores) from November 1st, 2019 to January 31st, 2020. Chi-square (χ²) test was used to compare the differences in practices of different categorical variables. Multivariable logistic regression was applied to analyze the association of various factors with antibiotics dispensing. Results: Antibiotics were dispensed without prescription in 456 (59%) of 773 simulated visits out of which 425 (93.2%) were dispensed on the advice of the drugstore staff. A qualified pharmacist was available in only 164 (21.2%) cases. Of the 386 visits for acute diarrhea and 387 for acute upper respiratory infection, nonprescription antibiotic dispensing occurred in 259 (67.1%) and 197 (50.9%) visits, respectively. There were considerable differences (p-value < 0.05) in the practices and antibiotics dispensing between each disease scenario presented. Moreover, antibiotics were less commonly dispensed at pharmacist-supervised drugstores compared to unsupervised ones. Conclusion: Overall, inappropriate dispensing practices were prevalent to a large extent at the drugstores, and antibiotics were effortlessly obtainable without prescription. The quality of the services provided, especially by the non-pharmacist staff, was also not satisfactory. Therefore, the Drug Regulating Authority of Pakistan must enforce strict implementation of drug laws at the drugstores without delay, especially in major cities to help curb the felonious use of antibiotics.

Background: Developing countries, such as the Philippines, started implementing policies to improve access to medicines, which is a vital step toward universal healthcare coverage. This study aimed to evaluate the prices, availability and affordability of prescribed medicines for diabetes, hypercholesterolemia and hypertension with the exemption of 12% value-added tax in the Philippines. Methods: The prices and availability of 50 medicines were collected in August 2019 from 36 public and 42 private medicine outlets in six regions of the Philippines, following a modified methodology developed by the World Health Organization and Health Action International. Availability is reported as the percentage of outlets in which the surveyed medicine was found at the time of visit. Medicine prices are expressed as median unit prices (MUPs) in Philippine Peso. Affordability is calculated based on the number of days’ wages required for the lowest-paid unskilled government worker to purchase a monthly treatment. Results: The mean availability of surveyed medicines was low in both public and private sectors, with 1.3% for originator brands (OBs) and 25.0% for lowest-priced generics (LPGs) in public outlets, and 34.7% and 35.4% in private outlets, respectively. The MUP of medicines were higher in private outlets, and OBs have higher unit price compared to the generic equivalents. Treatments with OBs were unaffordable, except for gliclazide, but the affordability of most LPGs is generally good. Conclusion: Access to medicines in both sectors was affected by low availability. High prices of OBs influenced the affordability of medicines even with tax exemption. A review of policies and regulations should be initiated for a better access to medicines in the Philippines.

Objective: This national survey was aimed at measuring the access to cardiovascular disease (CVD) medicines in terms of their availability, price, and affordability in Pakistan. This was done by using the standard WHO/Health Action International (HAI) methodology.Methods: The price and availability data for 18 CVD medicines were collected from public sector hospitals (n = 40) and private sector retail pharmacies (n = 40) in eight cities of Pakistan. The outcome measures were availability (calculated as percentage of health facilities stocked with listed medicines), medicine price to the international reference price ratio (i.e., median price ratio (MPR)), and affordability (calculated as number of days’ wages (NDWs) of the lowest paid unskilled government worker required to afford one-month treatment of a chronic disease). The affordability of standard treatment in Pakistan with four CVD drugs was compared with data from six other low and middle income countries (LMICs) using HAI database.Findings: The mean percent availability of CVD medicines was significantly low (p < 0.001) in the public sector as compared to the private sector, that is, 25.5% vs. 54.6% for originator brands (OBs) and 30.4% vs. 34.9% for lowest price generics (LPGs), respectively. For all OBs and LPGs, the inflation-adjusted mean MPR was 2.72 and 1, respectively. CVD medicines were found to be unaffordable with average NDWs of 6.4 and 2.2 for OBs and LPGs, respectively, that is, NDWs of more than 1. In international comparison with countries such as Sudan, Lebanon, Egypt, India, Afghanistan, and China, the affordability of standard treatment with selected CVD medicines (atenolol, amlodipine, captopril, and simvastatin) in Pakistan was found to be low. Overall, all four OBs and three out of four LPGs of selected CVD drugs were found unaffordable in Pakistan.Conclusion: This data indicated that the availability of selected CVD medicines was low in both public and private sector medicine outlets. Both OBs and LPGs were found unaffordable in the private sector, necessitating the redressal of pricing policies, structuring, and their implementation.

Background: Resistance to antibiotics is one of the major global health challenges. An adequate understanding of the public regarding rational antibiotic use is a prerequisite to limit progression in antibiotic resistance. This study aimed to investigate the knowledge, attitude, and practices (KAP) of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance among customers visiting community pharmacies. Methods: This study was undertaken in three capital cities in China during March 2019 and July 2019 by using a questionnaire of 28 items. The questionnaire had four parts, including sociodemographic characteristics, KAP about antibiotics, and antibiotic resistance. A systematic random sampling approach was used to recruit the participants. Kruskal–Wallis and Mann–Whitney tests were carried out for data analysis. Results: The response rate was 66.7% (1800/2700). Out of the total, only 9.7% of the customers had good knowledge about antibiotics. Nearly half of the participants were unable to differentiate between antibiotics, and anti-inflammatory drugs (n = 820, 45.6%, Median = 2, IQR = 1). Most of the customers were of the view that the use of over the counter antibiotics in pregnant women is unsafe (n = 1307, 72.6%, Median = 2, IQR = 0). Almost half of the participants disagreed that costly antibiotics are more effective and have fewer side effects (n = 897, 49.9%, Median = 3, IQR = 1). Only 22.3% of participants said that they always finish the course of antibiotic treatment (n = 401, 22.3%, Median = 3, IQR = 1). Conclusion: The knowledge of Chinese pharmacy consumers was inadequate, and a lack of good attitudes and practices in certain aspects of antibiotic use was observed. Educational interventions are needed to increase public knowledge of antibiotics.

Background: Diabetes is among the top ten most prevalent diseases in Pakistan, and the availability of medicines to treat the disease is vital for a great percentage of the country’s population. Insulin was discovered a century ago; however, its access in several parts of the globe remains an issue. This study aims to evaluate prices, availability, and affordability (access components) of insulin and five comparator medicine access in Pakistan.Methods: A nationwide cross-sectional survey was conducted to evaluate the access to insulin and some comparator medicines in eight cities of Pakistan, using a modified WHO/HAI methodology. The survey included 80 medicine outlets, i.e., 40 private pharmacies and 40 public hospitals. Data for every unique insulin product available in the Pakistani market were obtained, including five comparator medicines. Percentage availability, median unit prices (MUPs), and affordability (the number of days’ wages (NDWs) required for a month’s course by the lowest-paid unskilled government worker) of all products were calculated, including originator brands (OBs) and biosimilar (BS) products.Results: Of all insulin products surveyed (n = 320), 87.5% were manufactured by foreign multinational companies (MNCs). None of the insulin products had an ideal availability of 80% in any of the surveyed health facilities. In the public sector, none of the insulin products had an availability of more than 50%. In the public sector, the overall availability of human insulin was 70% (including OB and BS). While in the private sector, the overall availability of human insulin was 90% and that of analog insulin was 62.5%. The analog insulin products were 72.8% costlier than the human insulin products. The median prices of BS insulin were 25.4% lower than the OB products, indicating that almost one-fourth of the cost could be saved by switching to BS human insulin from OB human insulin. All oral anti-diabetic medicines were found to be affordable, whereas none of the insulin was affordable. The NDWs for human and analog insulin were 1.38 and 5.06.Conclusion: In Pakistan, the insulin availability falls short of the WHO’s benchmark of 80%. Insulin continues to be unaffordable in both private and government sectors. To increase insulin access, the government should optimize insulin procurement at all levels, promote local production, enforce biosimilar prescribing, and provide financial subsidies for these products.