The shoulder is a unique and complex joint in the human body with three bones and four joints, which makes it the most unstable joint in the body due to the amount of motion. To improve approaches toward understanding the performance of overhead throwing movements, this systematic review summarizes the type of analysis related to shoulder biomechanics involving overhead sporting motions. A search of seven databases identified 33 eligible studies, which were subsequently scored using the Modified Coleman Methodology Score scale. A total of nine articles from badminton, seven from baseball, five from volleyball, five from tennis, three from cricket, and one from softball were reviewed. All 33 studies evaluated shoulder kinematics and 12 of them also investigated the forces and torques (kinetics). The most common methods used were 3D motion analysis (76%), digital video cameras (15%), electromagnetic tracking system (6%), and finally 3% used IMU sensors. Overall, shoulder external rotation during the back swing, internal rotation, and elbow extension during the forward acceleration phase were the strongest predictors of high velocity overhead throwing movement. The findings provide some useful insights and guidance to researchers in their future contribution to the existing body of literature on shoulder overhead throwing movement biomechanics.

Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries can occur in non-contact conditions (e.g., jump-landing) and are common among junior badminton players. The knee abduction angle has been widely identified as a biomechanical risk factor that likely contributes to this injury mechanism. Purpose: This study aims to examine the relationship between the trunk and lower limb landing kinematics and the peak knee abduction angle following a jumping smash. Method: Twenty-one male junior badminton players performed jump smashes on an instrumented badminton court. Anthropometry was measured; trunk and lower limb single-leg landing kinematics and kinetics were collected using a motion capture system. Pearson’s correlation was performed to identify the variables significantly correlated to peak knee abduction angle, followed by stepwise multiple regression to identify the most important combination of predictors. Results: Regression analysis showed that knee external rotation angle at foot contact and peak knee internal rotation angle were associated with peak knee abduction angle. A separate analysis also showed that landing time was positively associated with peak knee abduction angle. Conclusions: Assessing ACL injury risk and developing injury prevention strategies for jump landings in badminton should focus on knee motion in the frontal and transverse planes, as well as landing time.

The badminton jump smash is vital for winning rallies, but players can have unintended variations in performance. This study examines the causes of intra-individual smash speed variations among 19 Malaysian male elite players. Twenty-five jump smashes were recorded using a 3D motion capture system, with the three fastest (95.0 ± 3.6 m·s⁻¹) and three slowest (85.8 ± 5.8 m·s⁻¹) smashes per participant categorised into different groups. Six racket/shuttlecock variables and six upper body technique variables during the swing phase and at the point of contact were analysed. Five out of the six racket/shuttlecock variables, including post-impact shuttlecock speed, racket head speed at contact, impact location, distance from the racket’s geometric centre, and swing time, significantly differed between groups. Only the shoulder elevation angle differed significantly from 75% to 95% of the forward swing (p = 0.023), with less elevation during faster smashes. Consistency in producing high shuttlecock speeds during the jump smash for elite players is primarily achieved through variables linked to timing. Players/coaches should focus on being able to initially produce high racket head speeds, at which point ensuring a consistently efficient impact between the stringbed and shuttlecock should be the priority.

Purpose: We investigated the effects of manipulating running velocity and hypoxic exposure on vastus lateralis muscle oxygenation levels during treadmill running. Methods: Eleven trained male distance runners performed 7 randomized runs at different velocities (8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20 km·h⁻¹), each lasting 45 seconds on an instrumented treadmill in normoxia (fraction of inspired oxygen [FiO₂] = 20.9%), moderate hypoxia (FiO₂ = 16.1%), high hypoxia (FiO₂ = 14.1%), and severe hypoxia (FiO₂ = 13.0%). Continuous assessment of Tissue Saturation Index (TSI) in the vastus lateralis muscle was conducted using near-infrared spectroscopy. Subsequently, changes in TSI (ΔTSI) data over the final 20 seconds of each run were compared between velocities and conditions. Results: There was a significant velocity × condition interaction for ΔTSI% (P < .001, ), with a smaller ΔTSI% decline in normoxia compared with high hypoxia and severe hypoxia at 8 km·h⁻¹ (g = 1.30 and 1.91, respectively), 10 km·h⁻¹ (g = 0.75 and 1.43, respectively), and 12 km·h⁻¹ (g = 1.47 and 1.95, respectively) (pooled values for all conditions: P < .037). The ΔTSI% decline increased with each subsequent velocity increment from 8 km·h⁻¹ (−9.2% [3.7%]) to 20 km·h⁻¹ (−22.5% [4.1%]) irrespective of hypoxia severity (pooled values for all conditions: P < .048). Conclusions: Running at slower velocities in conjunction with high and severe hypoxia reduces vastus lateralis muscle oxygenation levels. Muscle ΔTSI% proves to be a sensitive indicator, underscoring the potential use of near-infrared spectroscopy as a reference index of internal load during treadmill runs.

The badminton jump smash is vital for winning rallies, but players can have unintended varia-tions in performance. This study examines the causes of intra-individual smash speed variations among 19 Malaysian male elite players. Twenty-five jump smashes were recorded using a 3D motion capture system, with the three fastest (95.0 ± 3.6 m·s-1) and three slowest (85.8 ± 5.8 m·s-1) smashes per participant categorised into different groups. Six racket/shuttlecock variables and six upper body technique variables during the swing phase and at contact were analysed. Five out of six racket/shuttlecock variables, including post-impact shuttlecock speed, racket head speed at contact, impact location, distance from the racket's geometric centre, and swing time, significantly differed between groups. Only the shoulder elevation angle differed significantly from 75% to 95% of the forward swing (p = 0.023), with less elevation during faster smashes. Consistency in producing high shuttlecock speeds during the jump smash for elite players is primarily achieved through variables linked to timing. Players / coaches should focus on being able to initially produce high racket head speeds, at which point ensuring consistently efficient impact between the stringbed and shuttlecock should be the priority.

The explosive nature and fast-paced gameplay in badminton often leave players with reduced ground contact preparation time after executing a jump smash. This study aims to investigate the relationship between jump height, smash performance (shuttlecock speed, racket speed, smash angle, shuttlecock-contact height, absolute shuttlecock-racket impact location), and landing parameters (ground reaction force, impulse, landing time, lower limb joints kinematics) during badminton jump smashes. Kinematic and kinetic data of 21 male sub-elite junior badminton players were collected simultaneously for each jump smash trial using 18 Qualisys cameras and 3 Kistler force plates. Pearson’s correlation analysis revealed that higher jumps increased shuttlecock-contact height (p=0.020) and resulted in steeper shuttlecock angles (p=0.025), enhancing smash effectiveness. However, greater jump heights also correlated with higher peak landing vertical ground reaction forces (absolute, p=0.013; normalised, p=0.023), shorter time to peak force (p=0.013), and greater landing impulse at 50 ms (p=0.003), indicating increased injury risk due to higher impact loads. Players achieving greater jump heights landed with a more extended knee (p=0.023), greater knee external rotation (p=0.001), and increased lateral trunk flexion toward the racket side (p=0.001). The findings suggest that while higher jumps improve smash performance by allowing steeper shots, they also place knee at more extended position and potentially impose greater stress on the lower limbs during landing. Coaches should prioritise proper landing techniques to mitigate injury risks while maintaining performance benefits. Future research should explore the landing mechanics for different types of smashes i.e., jump-out smash to mitigate injury risks.