Voriconazole (VRC) is a broad-spectrum antifungal agent belonging to BCS class II (biopharmaceutical classification system). Despite many efforts to enhance its solubility, this primary issue still remains challenging for formulation scientists. Transethosomes (TELs) are one of the potential innovative nano-carriers for improving the solubility and permeation of poorly soluble and permeable drugs. We herein report voriconazole-loaded transethosomes (VRCT) fabricated by the cold method and followed by their incorporation into carbopol 940 as a gel. The prepared VRCT were evaluated for % yield, % entrapment efficiency (EE), surface morphology, possible chemical interaction, particle size, zeta potential, and polydispersity index (PDI). The optimized formulation had a particle size of 228.2 nm, a zeta potential of −26.5 mV, and a PDI of 0.45 with enhanced % EE. Rheology, spreadability, extrudability, in vitro release, skin permeation, molecular docking, antifungal, and antileishmanial activity were also assessed for VRCT and VRC loaded transethosomal gel (VTEG). Ex-vivo permeation using rat skin depicted a transdermal flux of 22.8 µg/cm²/h with enhanced efficiency up to 4-fold. A two-fold reduction in inhibitory as well as fungicidal concentration was observed against various fungal strains by VRCT and VTEG besides similar results against L-donovani. The development of transethosomal formulation can serve as an efficient drug delivery system through a topical route with enhanced efficacy and better patient compliance.

Itraconazole (ITZ) is a broad-spectrum antifungal for superficial subcutaneous and systemic fungal infections. This study aimed to enhance the antifungal activity of ITZ using surfactin A (SA), a cyclic lipopeptide produced by the SA-producing Bacillus strain NH-100, possessing strong antifungal activity. SA was extracted, and ITZ-loaded SA micelles formulations were prepared via a single-pot rinsing method and characterized by particle size, zeta potential, and infrared spectroscopy. In vitro dissolution at pH 1.2, as well as hemolysis studies, was also carried out. The fabricated formulations were stable and non-spherical in shape, with an average size of about 179 nm, and FTIR spectra depicted no chemical interaction among formulation components. ITZ-loaded micelles showed decreased hemolysis activity in comparison to pure ITZ. The drug released followed the Korsmeyer–Peppas model, having R² 0.98 with the diffusion release mechanism. In an acidic buffer, drug release of all prepared formulations was in the range of 73–89% in 2 h. The molecular simulation showed the outstanding binding and stability profile of the ITZ-SA complex. The aromatic ring of the ITZ mediates a π-alkyl contact with a side chain in the SA. It can be concluded that ITZ-loaded micelles, owing to significant enhanced antifungal activity up to 6-fold due to the synergistic effect of SA, can be a promising drug delivery platform for delivery of poorly soluble ITZ.

Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) have the advantages of a cell-specific delivery and sustained release of hydrophobic drugs that can be exploited against infectious diseases. The topical delivery of hydrophobic drugs needs pharmaceutical strategies to enhance drug permeation, which is a challenge faced by conventional formulations containing a drug suspended in gel, creams or ointments. We report the fabrication and optimization of SLNs with sulconazole (SCZ) as a model hydrophobic drug and then a formulation of an SLN-based topical gel against fungal infections. The SLNs were optimized through excipients of glyceryl monostearate and Phospholipon^® 90 H as lipids and tween 20 as a surfactant for its size, drug entrapment and sustained release and resistance against aggregation. The SCZ-SLNs were physically characterized for their particle size (89.81 ± 2.64), polydispersity index (0.311 ± 0.07), zeta potential (−26.98 ± 1.19) and encapsulation efficiency (86.52 ± 0.53). The SCZ-SLNs showed sustained release of 85.29% drug at the 12 h timepoint. The TEM results demonstrated spherical morphology, while DSC, XRD and FTIR showed the compatibility of the drug inside SLNs. SCZ-SLNs were incorporated into a gel using carbopol and were further optimized for their rheological behavior, pH, homogeneity and spreadability on the skin. The antifungal activity against Candida albicans and Trichophyton rubrum was increased in comparison to a SCZ carbopol-based gel. In vivo antifungal activity in rabbits presented faster healing of skin fungal infections. The histopathological examination of the treated skin from rabbits presented restoration of the dermal architecture. In summary, the approach of formulating SLNs into a topical gel presented an advantageous drug delivery system against mycosis.

Tioconazole (TCZ) is a broad-spectrum fungicidal BCS class II drug with reported activity against Candida albicans, dermatophytes, and certain Staphylococci bacteria. We report the use of TCZ-loaded transethosomes (TEs) to overcome the skin’s barrier function. TCZ-loaded TEs were fabricated by using a cold method with slight modification. Box–Behnken composite design was utilized to investigate the effect of independent variables. The fabricated TEs were assessed with various physicochemical characterizations. The optimized formulation of TCZ-loaded TEs was incorporated into gel and evaluated for pH, conductivity, drug content, spreadability, rheology, in vitro permeation, ex vivo permeation, and in vitro and in vivo antifungal activity. The fabricated TCZ-loaded TEs had a % EE of 60.56 to 86.13, with particle sizes ranging from 219.1 to 757.1 nm. The SEM images showed spherically shaped vesicles. The % drug permeation was between 77.01 and 92.03. The kinetic analysis of all release profiles followed Higuchi’s diffusion model. The FTIR, DSC, and XRD analysis showed no significant chemical interactions between the drug and excipients. A significantly higher antifungal activity was observed for TCZ-loaded transethosomal gel in comparison to the control. The in vivo antifungal study on albino rats indicated that TCZ-loaded transethosomal gel showed a comparable therapeutic effect in comparison to the market brand Canesten^®. Molecular docking demonstrated that the TCZ in the TE composition was surrounded by hydrophobic excipients with increased overall hydrophobicity and better permeation. Therefore, TCZ in the form of transethosomal gel can serve as an effective drug delivery system, having the ability to penetrate the skin and overcome the stratum corneum barrier with improved efficacy.

Hydroxypropyl β-cyclodextrin (HPβCD) based polymeric nanobeads containing voriconazole (VRC) were fabricated by free radical polymerization using N, N′-methylene bisacrylamide (MBA) as a cross-linker, 2-acrylamide-2-methylpropane sulfonic acid (AMPS) as monomer and ammonium persulfate (APS) as reaction promoter. Optimized formulation (CDN5) had a particle size of 320 nm with a zeta potential of −35.5 mV and 87% EE. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) depicted porous and non-spherical shaped beads. No evidence of chemical interaction was evident in FT-IR studies, whereas distinctive high-intensity VRC peaks were found superimposed in XRD. A stable polymeric network formation was evident in DSC studies owing to a lower breakdown in VRC loaded HPβCD in comparison to blank HPβCD. In vitro release studies showed 91 and 92% drug release for optimized formulation at pH 1.2 and 6.8, respectively, with first-order kinetics as the best-fit model and non-Fickian diffusion as the release mechanism. No evidence of toxicity was observed upon oral administration of HPβCD loaded VRC polymeric nanobeads owing to with cellular morphology of vital organs as observed in histopathology. Molecular docking indicates the amalgamation of the compounds highlighting the hydrophobic patching mediated by nanogel formulation. It can be concluded that the development of polymeric nanobeads can be a promising tool to enhance the solubility and efficacy of hydrophobic drugs such as VRC besides decreased toxicity and for effective management of fungal infections.

Hydrogels are increasingly explored as functional wound-dressing materials because they combine high water content, biocompatibility, structural tunability, and the ability to localize therapeutic delivery at injured tissue. As biomaterial platforms, hydrogel dressings can maintain a moist microenvironment, absorb exudate, protect the wound bed, and carry bioactive agents that modulate infection, inflammation, oxidative stress, and tissue regeneration. This review examines hydrogel wound dressings from a materials centered perspective. First, skin structure, wound-healing physiology, and major barriers to repair are outlined to define the biological requirements for effective dressings. Next, the chemical composition of natural, synthetic, and composite hydrogels, their crosslinking strategies, swelling behavior, and drug-loading and release mechanisms are discussed in relation to wound healing performance. Recent progress in infection responsive, stimuli responsive, growth factor delivering, antimicrobial peptide loaded, and self-healing hydrogel systems is then summarized. The present review highlights how composition, network architecture, and responsiveness govern biomedical function and localized drug delivery in wound care. These insights provide a materials centered framework that connects hydrogel composition, network architecture, responsiveness, and localized delivery behavior with wound healing performance, thereby supporting the rational design of next generation hydrogel biomaterials for difficult to heal wounds.