The concept of the internet of things (IoT) motivates us to connect bulk isolated heterogeneous devices to automate report generation without human interaction. Energy-efficient routing algorithms help to prolong the network lifetime of these energy-restricted smart devices that are connected by means of wireless sensor networks (WSNs). Current vendor-level advancements enable algorithm-level flexibility to design protocols to concurrently collect multiple application data while enforcing the reduction of energy expenditure to gain commercial success in the industrial stage. In this paper, we propose a hybrid clustering and routing algorithm with threshold-based data collection for heterogeneous wireless sensor networks. In our proposed model, homogeneous and heterogeneous nodes are deployed within specific regions. To reduce unnecessary data transmission, threshold-based conditions are presented to prevent unnecessary transmission when minor or no change is observed in the simulated and real-world applications. We further extend our proposed multi-hop model to achieve more network stability in dense and larger network areas. Our proposed model shows enhancement in terms of load balancing and end-to-end delay as compared to the other threshold-based energy-efficient routing protocols, such as the threshold-sensitive stable election protocol (TSEP), threshold distributed energy-efficient clustering (TDEEC), low-energy adaptive clustering hierarchy (LEACH), and energy-efficient sensor network (TEEN).

Designing and development of energy effective path planning algorithm is very key research domain in order to tackle the issues of limited life-time for Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). So in WSNs, energy efficiency is major concern of researchers. Overall advancement in routing protocols prove that clustering is much better approach as compared to flat and location-based energy efficient routing protocols. Due to better performance, multiple energy efficient clustering routing protocols have been proposed. But existing clustering algorithms are centralized or distributed, which are not intelligent enough and do not produce hybrid cluster-head selection. In this paper, we propose a cluster structured path planning algorithm named, Hybrid Advance Distributed Centralized Clustering (HADCC) path planning energy efficient algorithm. HADCC proposed model is fascinated with hybrid cluster head selection algorithm. This hybrid algorithm makes decision of cluster head selection of nodes. In order to execute proposed model we have also proposed an advance network topology, in which the whole network region is divided into two physical levels. First physical level consists of a circular region, containing homogeneous normal nodes and all important Base Station. While, second physical level is outer region of the circle that contains advanced heterogeneous nodes. Simulation results indicate that HADCC prolongs the network lifetime as compared to existing advanced clustering routing protocols for both homogeneous and heterogeneous WSNs. HADCC outperforms in case of stability and network life time as compared to the existing clustering algorithms.

The integration of the Internet of Vehicles (IoV) with the Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) plays a significant role in ensuring safe and efficient traffic management. However, communication signals may encounter natural or artificial obstacles that result in uncovered road segments, where connectivity is lost. Even minor collisions in these unprotected areas can escalate into major incidents or traffic bottlenecks, especially when vehicles are traveling at high speeds on highways. Therefore, it is crucial to promptly inform the ITS of any adverse events occurring in these unnoticed areas. The importance of Store-Carry-Forward (SCF) techniques increases in such scenarios when uncovered patches exist and intervehicle distances exceed the communication range. Store-Carry-Forward (SCF) is a technique where vehicles temporarily store data and forward it when a connection is available. To address improved coverage and reduced latency using SCF, we propose a beacon-based Store-Carry-Forward Scheme to Deliver Emergency Messages via vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) Communication for Highways (SCF-EMD). The proposed method aims to minimize congestion and delays in disseminating information about adverse events. It involves selecting high-mobility vehicles to travel across both covered and uncovered highway segments. The scheme integrates V2V and vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) communication to ensure rapid delivery of emergency alerts to ITS. SCF-EMD demonstrated significant improvements over existing schemes in Network Simulator $$(NS-3)$$ , achieving over $$10\%$$ , $$16\%$$ and $$5\%$$ gains in information coverage, end-to-end delay, and packet delivery ratio (PDR), respectively.