Cartilage tissue is under extensive investigation in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine studies because of its limited regenerative potential. Currently, many scaffolds are undergoing scientific and clinical research. A key for appropriate scaffolding is the assurance of a temporary cellular environment that allows the cells to function as in native tissue. These scaffolds should meet the relevant requirements, including appropriate architecture and physicochemical and biological properties. This is necessary for proper cell growth, which is associated with the adequate regeneration of cartilage. This paper presents a review of the development of scaffolds from synthetic polymers and hybrid materials employed for the engineering of cartilage tissue and regenerative medicine. Initially, general information on articular cartilage and an overview of the clinical strategies for the treatment of cartilage defects are presented. Then, the requirements for scaffolds in regenerative medicine, materials intended for membranes, and methods for obtaining them are briefly described. We also describe the hybrid materials that combine the advantages of both synthetic and natural polymers, which provide better properties for the scaffold. The last part of the article is focused on scaffolds in cartilage tissue engineering that have been confirmed by undergoing preclinical and clinical tests.

Polymers stand out as promising materials extensively employed in biomedicine and biotechnology. Their versatile applications owe much to the field of tissue engineering, which seamlessly integrates materials engineering with medical science. In medicine, biomaterials serve as prototypes for organ development and as implants or scaffolds to facilitate body regeneration. With the growing demand for innovative solutions, synthetic and hybrid polymer materials, such as polyethersulfone, are gaining traction. This article offers a concise characterization of polyethersulfone followed by an exploration of its diverse applications in medical and biotechnological realms. It concludes by summarizing the significant roles of polyethersulfone in advancing both medicine and biotechnology, as outlined in the accompanying table.

This work presents methods of obtaining polymeric hollow-fiber membranes produced via the dry–wet phase inversion method that were published in renowned specialized membrane publications in the years 2010–2020. Obtaining hollow-fiber membranes, unlike flat membranes, requires the use of a special installation for their production, the most important component of which is the hollow fiber forming spinneret. This method is most often used in obtaining membranes made of polysulfone, polyethersulfone, polyurethane, cellulose acetate, and its derivatives. Many factors affect the properties of the membranes obtained. By changing the parameters of the spinning process, we change the thickness of the membranes’ walls and the diameter of the hollow fibers, which causes changes in the membranes’ structure and, as a consequence, changes in their transport/separation parameters. The type of bore fluid affects the porosity of the inner epidermal layer or causes its atrophy. Porogenic compounds such as polyvinylpyrrolidones and polyethylene glycols and other substances that additionally increase the membrane porosity are often added to the polymer solution. Another example is a blend of two- or multi-component membranes and dual-layer membranes that are obtained using a three-nozzle spinneret. In dual-layer membranes, one layer is the membrane scaffolding, and the other is the separation layer. Also, the temperature during the process, the humidity, and the composition of the solution in the coagulating bath have impact on the parameters of the membranes obtained.

In recent years, one of the main goals of cartilage tissue engineering has been to find appropriate scaffolds for hyaline cartilage regeneration, which could serve as a matrix for chondrocytes or stem cell cultures. The study presents three types of scaffolds obtained from a blend of polyethersulfone (PES) and polyurethane (PUR) by a combination of wet-phase inversion and salt-leaching methods. The nonwovens made of gelatin and sodium chloride (NaCl) were used as precursors of macropores. Thus, obtained membranes were characterized by a suitable structure. The top layers were perforated, with pores over 20 µm, which allows cells to enter the membrane. The use of a nonwoven made it possible to develop a three-dimensional network of interconnected macropores that is required for cell activity and mobility. Examination of wettability (contact angle, swelling ratio) showed a hydrophilic nature of scaffolds. The mechanical test showed that the scaffolds were suitable for knee joint applications (stress above 10 MPa). Next, the scaffolds underwent a degradation study in simulated body fluid (SBF). Weight loss after four weeks and changes in structure were assessed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and MeMoExplorer Software, a program that estimates the size of pores. The porosity measurements after degradation confirmed an increase in pore size, as expected. Hydrolysis was confirmed by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) analysis, where the disappearance of ester bonds at about 1730 cm⁻¹ wavelength is noticeable after degradation. The obtained results showed that the scaffolds meet the requirements for cartilage tissue engineering membranes and should undergo further testing on an animal model.

Electrospun fibers, often used as drug delivery systems, have two drawbacks - in the first stage of their action a sudden active substance burst release occurs and they have a relatively small capacity for a drug. In this work the fibers are modified by the addition of drug-loaded microspheres acting as micro-containers for the drug and increasing the total drug capacity of the system. Its release from such a structure is slowed down by placing the microspheres inside the fibers so they are covered with an outer layer of fiber-forming polymer. The work presents a new method (microsphere suspension electrospinning) of obtaining polyvinylpyrrolidone fibers cross-linked with UV light modified with polycaprolactone/polyethersulphone microspheres loaded with active substance - rhodamine 640 as a marker or ampicillin as a drug example. The influence of UV-cross-linking time and the microspheres addition on the degradation, mechanical strength and transport properties of fibrous mats was investigated. The mats were insoluble in water, in some cases mechanically stronger, their drug capacity was increased and the burst effect was eliminated. The antibacterial properties of ampicillin-loaded mats were confirmed. The product of proposed suspension electrospinning process has application potential as a drug delivery system.