Vertical Green Structures (VGS) emerged as a building skin Nature-based Solution (NbS) aside from green roofs. The motivation underlying this VGS exploitation is fast urbanisation and the need to limit both land consumption and vegetation loss. These structures can provide several ecosystem services like air purification, biodiversity enhancement, and noise reduction. Although the usage of VGS offers different versatile and multi-scalar benefits in the built environment, they still need to respond to all the requirements of social, economic, and environmental sustainability. Over the last decades, technologies of VGS have been developed and new product types have become available in the market. This paper presents the overall development and benefits of VGS, and aims to provide a taxonomy by considering a systematic and interdisciplinary approach. The current market overview analyses and compares different aspects (i.e., environmental and economic features) of the products for a better understanding of the current state-of-the-art—from single component to system scale. The findings of this review lead to some suggestions to enhance the level of sustainability and increase the potential benefits. They look at both research and practice requirements to orient the users in selecting the most optimal VGS solution available in the market.

The “15-minute city” (15minC) model has gained global attention as a framework for promoting walkability and sustainable urban mobility. While its adoption has grown, challenges remain in adapting the model to diverse urban contexts worldwide. This paper critically examines the 15minC model, its theoretical limitations, and the need for more context- and user-based approaches to ensure sustainable urban mobility and well-being outcomes across varying morphological, climatic, and cultural settings. The article then introduces the concept of CityTime, which redefines proximity as borderless and adaptable, measuring the minutes needed to walk to customizable ecosystems of urban functions. Using a GIS-based approach, it evaluates the accessibility of points of interest (POIs) to balance their quantitative (proximity) and qualitative (diversity) distribution, proposing new metrics. The approach is tested in Dakar, Rio de Janeiro, and Milan—cities that vary significantly in size, density, and geographic location, representing both the Global North and Global South. Within each city, three distinct areas are selected using a multidimensional clustering method based on POI distributions. These case studies demonstrate the flexibility of CityTime across diverse morphological and socio-economic conditions and its potential to democratize the 15minC ideals, creating more equitable and context-sensitive urban environments globally.

Urbanization exacerbates climate change impacts, making it crucial to develop innovative strategies for adaptation and mitigation. In this context, the “smartness” concept must be seen as the technical capability to forecast and adapt to changing conditions while maintaining livability and safety. This paper investigates the use of Vertical Green Structures (VGSs) as a mitigation strategy. Through a critical review of technology-driven applications, this research identifies key motivations and challenges in VGSs’ technological integration and implementation, governance frameworks, and community engagement. Methodologically, it employs a critical case analysis and categorizes the technologies based on multicriteria; it also explores the potential to implement smart green infrastructure (GI) in cities and the GI urban governance that was developed in previous decades to adopt these systems at an urban scale and increase the community’s awareness of them. The findings reveal diverse motivations driving technology and VGS integration, ranging from economic incentives to environmental sustainability. Additionally, this contribution explores possible future directions for VGSs and highlights three scenarios derived after the multidimensional impacts of climate change with their pros and cons in future cities. Multidisciplinary collaboration emerges as a crucial factor in optimizing technology implementations in VGSs and fostering a transition from nature-based solutions to technology-based solutions in urban sustainability initiatives.

Urban heat island (UHI) mitigation and adaptation are urgent needs in a built environment, which requires us to search for sustainable solutions to limit the urban heat island effect and improve the energy efficiency of building envelopes. Among these solutions, vertical green structures (VGSs) have recently attracted significant attention for their potential to mitigate adverse effects, especially in densely built areas. This study presents a comprehensive data analysis of the microclimate of a living wall in Milan, Italy. Our aim was to evaluate this VGS’s performance in mitigating temperature increases caused by the UHI effect. In the literature, similar studies are limited to shorter monitoring periods (mostly in cooling seasons) and specific orientations (mostly facing south). However, the VGS presented in this case study here faces northwest and was continuously monitored for one calendar year. During this continuous in situ monitoring campaign, air temperature data from sensors either embedded in vegetation or exposed on a bare wall were collected and analysed over a whole calendar year, which is a novelty compared to the existing literature focused on VGSs due to the long duration. The findings indicate that the studied VGS has the ability to influence the outdoor microclimate depending on the season, the precipitation events, the wall exposure, the type of vegetation, and the vegetation’s phenological attributes. The analysis showed that the VGS consistently maintained cooler temperatures than the bare wall, with mean temperature differences ranging from 2.8 °C in autumn to 0.8 °C in spring through the winter. The vegetation acted as a natural insulator by reducing the air temperature during the hot summer and in early autumn, corresponding to the growing period of the vegetation. Thus, VGSs show potential to mitigate the global warming effect. These findings provide valuable insights on vegetation’s capability to act as a thermal regulator for sustainable urban planning and energy-efficient building design and retrofitting.

The building sector is responsible for a significant percentage of the energy consumption in Europe. The level of thermal insulation of the building envelope leads to decrease energy consumption, thus contributing towards a sustainable and efficient built environment. As a result, the choice of the most suitable thermal insulation solution to be applied both in new construction and in retrofitting of building facades is fundamental for a satisfactory thermal performance of the building. Nevertheless, the thermal insulation solution should not be chosen considering only the thermal performance, but rather based on a set of performance parameters (i.e., water resistance, fire performance, impact on the environment and human health, among others) and climate-related requirements. This data article includes a dataset on criteria adopted in three European countries (namely Norway, Portugal, and Italy) considering a PESTE analysis (i.e., criteria related to Political, Economic, Social, Technological, and Environmental questions). The main objective was to evaluate the knowledge and perception of people living and/or working in these countries about the use and the performance of thermal insulation solutions in building facades. To this aim a questionnaire was developed within the scope of the EEA Granted EFFICACY research project (November 2022 – February 2023), whose overall objective is to create a database that serves as a reference for the choice of thermal insulation solutions to be applied in building facades for thermal and energy performances optimization. This database contributes to systemize criteria and can be extended by other researchers or professionals in the area, as well as in other countries.