There have been considerable changes in equipment design and movement patterns in the past few years both in alpine skiing and ski-jumping. These developments have been matched by methods of analysing movements in field conditions. They have yielded new insights into the skills of these specific winter sports. Analytical techniques have included electromyography, kinetic and kinematic methods and computer simulations. Our aim here is to review biomechanical research in alpine skiing and ski-jumping. We present in detail the techniques currently used in alpine skiing (carving technique) and ski-jumping (V-technique), primarily using data from the authors’ own research. Finally, we present a summary of the most important results in biomechanical research both in alpine skiing and ski-jumping. This includes an analysis of specific conditions in alpine skiing (type of turn, terrain, snow, speed, etc.) and the effects of equipment, materials and individual-specific abilities on performance, safety and joint loading in ski-jumping.

In this paper, I review biomechanics research in ski jumping with a specific focus on publications presented between 1991 and 2006 on performance enhancement, limiting factors of the take-off, specific training and conditioning, aerodynamics, and safety. The first section presents a brief description of ski jumping phases (in-run, take-off, early flight, stable flight, and landing) regarding the biomechanical and functional fundamentals. The most important and frequently used biomechanical methods in ski jumping (kinematics, ground reaction force analyses, muscle activation patterns, aerodynamics) are summarized in the second section. The third section focuses on ski jumping articles and research findings published after the establishment of the V-technique in 1991, as the introduction of this technique has had a major influence on performance enhancement, ski jumping regulations, and the construction of hill profiles. The final section proposes topics for future research in the biomechanics of ski jumping, including: take-off and early flight and the relative roles of vertical velocity and forward somersaulting angular momentum; optimal jumping patterns utilizing the capabilities of individual athletes; development of kinematic and kinetic feedback systems for hill jumps; comparisons of simulated and hill jumps; effect of equipment modifications on performance and safety enhancement.

The aim of this study was to determine external and internal loads on the knee joint during downhill walking with and without hiking poles. Kinematic, kinetic and electromyographic data were collected from eight males during downhill walking on a ramp declined at 25 o . Planar knee joint moments and forces were calculated using a quasi-static knee model. The results were analysed for an entire pole-cycle as well as differentiated between single and double support phases and between each step of a pole-cycle. Significant differences between downhill walking with and without hiking poles were observed for peak and average magnitudes of ground reaction force, knee joint moment, and tibiofemoral compressive and shear forces (12-25%). Similar reductions were found in patellofemoral compressive force, the quadriceps tendon force and the activity of the vastus lateralis; however, because of a high variability, these differences were not significant. The reductions seen during downhill walking with hiking poles compared with unsupported downhill walking were caused primarily by the forces applied to the hiking poles and by a change in posture to a more forward leaning position of the upper body, with the effect of reducing the knee moment arm.

MÜLLER, E., U. BENKO, C. RASCHNER, and H. SCHWAMEDER. Specific fitness training and testing in competitive sports. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 32, No. 1, pp. 216–220, 2000. Improvements of athletic capacity in high-performance sport are mainly achieved through an increase of the quality of training. In physical preparation, the quality of training can be improved by developing highly specific means of training. The aim of this paper is to present three examples of how highly specific means of fitness training of world class athletes can be developed. The first example presents a test profile of specific motor abilities of top class tennis players, the second one deals with the improvement of specific strength training methods for ski jumpers, and the third deals with the development of specific training devices of Alpine ski racers.

Background Course setting has often been discussed as a potential preventative measure in the World Cup ski-racing community. However, there is limited understanding of how it is related to injury risk. Objective This study was undertaken to investigate the effect of increased horizontal gate distance on energy-related and injury mechanism-related variables. Methods During a video-based three-dimensional (3D)-kinematic field measurement, a top world-class racer performed giant slalom runs at two course settings with different horizontal gate distances. A full-body segment model was reconstructed in 3D and selected biomechanical parameters were calculated. Results For the analysed turn, no significant differences were found in turn speed for increased horizontal gate distance. However, a large effect size was observed for speed reduction towards the end of the turn. Turn forces were by tendency higher at the beginning and significantly higher towards the end of the turn. Additionally, significant differences were found in higher inward leaning, and large effect sizes were observed for a decreased fore/aft position after gate passage. Conclusions On the basis of the data of this study, no final conclusion can be made about whether, for a section of consecutive turns, increasing horizontal gate distance is an effective tool for speed reduction. However, this study pointed out two major drawbacks of this course setting modification: (1) it may increase fatigue as a consequence of loading forces acting over a longer duration; (2) it may increase the risk of out-of-balance situations by forcing the athlete to exhaust his backward and inward leaning spectrum.

Recently, four concepts explaining time differences in alpine ski racing have been suggested. Since the demands on a “well performed” turn are contradicting among these concepts, it is unclear which turn characteristics a skier should aim for in a specific giant slalom situation. During a video-based 3D-kinematic field measurement, single repetitive runs of a world class athlete were compared regarding section times over one turn and variables explaining time differences. None of the existing concepts was able to entirely explain time differences between different performed turns. However, it was found that the skier's line and timing played an important role for time over short sections. Hence, for both science and coaching, there is a need for more comprehensive approaches that include all variables influencing performance in one concept. In coaching, one such approach could be the training of implicit adaptation mechanisms in terms of situation-dependent line and/or timing strategies.