T cell-mediated hyperinflammatory responses, such as cytokine release syndrome (CRS) and immune effector cell-associated neurotoxicity syndrome (ICANS), are now well-established toxicities of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy. As the field of CAR T cells advances, however, there is increasing recognition that hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH)-like toxicities following CAR T cell infusion are occurring broadly across patient populations and CAR T cell constructs. Importantly, these HLH-like toxicities are often not as directly associated with CRS and/or its severity as initially described. This emergent toxicity, however ill-defined, is associated with life-threatening complications, creating an urgent need for improved identification and optimal management. With the goal of improving patient outcomes and formulating a framework to characterize and study this HLH-like syndrome, we established an American Society for Transplantation and Cellular Therapy panel composed of experts in primary and secondary HLH, pediatric and adult HLH, infectious disease, rheumatology and hematology, oncology, and cellular therapy. Through this effort, we provide an overview of the underlying biology of classical primary and secondary HLH, explore its relationship with similar manifestations following CAR T cell infusions, and propose the term "immune effector cell-associated HLH-like syndrome (IEC-HS)" to describe this emergent toxicity. We also delineate a framework for identifying IEC-HS and put forward a grading schema that can be used to assess severity and facilitate cross-trial comparisons. Additionally, given the critical need to optimize outcomes for patients experiencing IEC-HS, we provide insight into potential treatment approaches and strategies to optimize supportive care and delineate alternate etiologies that should be considered in a patient presenting with IEC-HS. By collectively defining IEC-HS as a hyperinflammatory toxicity, we can now embark on further study of the pathophysiology underlying this toxicity profile and make strides toward a more comprehensive assessment and treatment approach.

Purpose: To investigate the efficacy of the combination of the FLT3 inhibitors midostaurin or gilteritinib with the Bcl-2 inhibitor venetoclax in FLT3-internal tandem duplication (ITD) acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and the underlying molecular mechanism. Experimental Design: Using both FLT3-ITD cell lines and primary patient samples, Annexin V-FITC/propidium iodide staining and flow cytometry analysis were used to quantify cell death induced by midostaurin or gilteritinib, alone or in combination with venetoclax. Western blot analysis was performed to assess changes in protein expression levels of members of the JAK/STAT, MAPK/ERK, and PI3K/AKT pathways, and members of the Bcl-2 family of proteins. The MV4-11–derived xenograft mouse model was used to assess in vivo efficacy of the combination of gilteritinib and venetoclax. Lentiviral overexpression of Mcl-1 was used to confirm its role in cell death induced by midostaurin or gilteritinib with venetoclax. Changes of Mcl-1 transcript levels were assessed by RT-PCR. Results: The combination of midostaurin or gilteritinib with venetoclax potently and synergistically induces apoptosis in FLT3-ITD AML cell lines and primary patient samples. The FLT3 inhibitors induced downregulation of Mcl-1, enhancing venetoclax activity. Phosphorylated-ERK expression is induced by venetoclax but abolished by the combination of venetoclax with midostaurin or gilteritinib. Simultaneous downregulation of Mcl-1 by midostaurin or gilteritinib and inhibition of Bcl-2 by venetoclax results in “free” Bim, leading to synergistic induction of apoptosis. In vivo results show that gilteritinib in combination with venetoclax has therapeutic potential. Conclusions: Inhibition of Bcl-2 via venetoclax synergistically enhances the efficacy of midostaurin and gilteritinib in FLT3-mutated AML. See related commentary by Perl, p. 6567

Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors (MPNSTs) are aggressive soft tissue sarcomas (STS) with nerve sheath differentiation and a tendency to metastasize. Although occurring at an incidence of 0.001% in the general population, they are relatively common in individuals with neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1), for whom the lifetime risk approaches 10%. The staging of MPNSTs is complicated and requires close multi-disciplinary collaboration. Their primary management is most often surgical in nature, with non-surgical modalities playing a supportive, necessary role, particularly in metastatic, invasive, or widespread disease. We, therefore, sought to provide a comprehensive review of the relevant literature describing the characteristics of these tumors, their pathophysiology and risk factors, their diagnosis, and their multi-disciplinary treatment. A close partnership between surgical and medical oncologists is therefore necessary. Advances in the molecular characterization of these tumors have also begun to allow the integration of targeted RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK pathway inhibitors into MPNST management.

Hemophilia A, characterized by impaired or absent expression of factor VIII, has long been managed via direct factor replacement. Functionally, factor VIII acts as a cofactor for factor IXa and allows activation of factor X, which, in combination with factor V, generates thrombin. Bispecific antibodies such as emicizumab are recombinant, monoclonal antibodies capable of recognizing and binding to two distinct antigenic targets simultaneously; emicizumab binds factors IXa and X, resulting in spatial approximation and activation of factor X, thereby mimicking the actions of factor VIII. Critically, the presence of antifactor VIII antibodies, for example, inhibitors, impacts neither the mechanism nor the efficacy by which emicizumab functions. The results and interim analyses of the emicizumab clinical trials, HAVEN 1, 2, 3, and 4, are additionally reviewed and discussed.

Pleuropulmonary blastomas (PPB) are pediatric, embryonal cancers of the lung parenchyma and pleural surfaces and are among the most common DICER1—related disorders. These tumors undergo evolution through several forms, allowing division into types I, Ir, II, and III, with correlates to the age of diagnosis and prognosis. We sought to provide a comprehensive review of the relevant literature describing the characteristics of these tumors and their multidisciplinary treatment, with an emphasis on surgical management. We describe the complementary roles of chemotherapy and surgery in the successful management of this disease. We discuss the timing of surgery and options for surgical approaches. We address the differentiation of PPB from congenital pulmonary airway malformation and the role of DICER1 testing for children with pulmonary cysts.