Ninth grade on-track is predictive of high school graduation, more than race, socio-economic status, and prior achievement combined. Although initiatives characterized by an intense focus on the ninth-grade year are being increasingly implemented, research has not fully documented and tested mechanisms linked to improved outcomes. Using survey and transcript-level data and causal mediation analysis, this study tests the effects of students attending high teacher efficacy (self and collective—TSE and CTE) schools on ninth grade on-track in an urban school district in a northeast state in the United States. It further examines the extent to which ambitious instructional practices, defined as culturally relevant and transformative pedagogy, mediate the effects of TSE on ninth grade on-track and how levels of supportive school culture moderate these relationships. The findings indicate that urban ninth-graders attending schools with high TSE and CTE are more likely to be on track at the end of ninth grade. Additionally, the direct effect of students attending a school with high TSE was mediated by the level of ambitious instruction. We discuss implications for teacher education (TE) and professional development.

Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) study in secondary school can lead to rewarding post-secondary options. Increasing participation and access to STEM fields is a national priority in addition to reducing inequality in access. A basic point of entry to STEM, middle and secondary mathematics course enrollment has been a pothole in STEM pathways because of persistent disparities by racial, socioeconomic, language, and disability backgrounds. This article presents findings of a landscape study of mathematics course-taking in middle and secondary schools in the state of New Jersey between 2016 and 2020 using publicly available school-level data from the New Jersey Department of Education’s (NJDOE) School Performance Reports. Findings focus on rates of enrollment in the standard mathematics sequence – Algebra I, Geometry, and Algebra II – and high-leverage, advanced coursework – Pre-Calculus, Calculus, and Statistics – often favored in admission to selective post-secondary institutions and many mathematics-related majors. Disparities in enrollment in STEM courses have been along racial and economic lines so this study disaggregates trends by racial and socioeconomic composition of students in schools. Results are further broken down to show cross-sectional mathematics course-taking trends by grade level to depict students’ likely trajectory through secondary school. Findings also focus on mathematics course-taking in schools with varying proportions of English Learners (ELs) and students with disabilities (SWDs). Lastly, we feature schools with trends which are positive outliers from the average pattern. Overall, we find that students in segregated schools (90% + minority and/or 50% + economic disadvantage) do not have the same levels of enrollment in high-leverage coursework in mathematics as those in non-segregated schools. This disparity starts in 8th grade and worsens as students move to the later years of secondary school. We find some similar patterns for schools with the highest EL and SWD enrollments.

This entry describes high school science course taking in the United States (U.S.). High school science course taking refers to the selection, enrollment, and completion of science-related coursework during grades nine through twelve. It encompasses both the timing, quantity, and the rigor (or level of challenge) of science courses. Science course taking in high school includes both foundational or core courses like biology, chemistry, physics, and environmental science. Students may also take advanced science courses such as Advanced Placement (AP), (International Baccalaureate (IB), career and technical education (CTE) or applied, and dual credit or dual enrollment science courses. Some advanced courses meet core course requirements (e.g., AP Physics). This entry focuses on core science course taking, and the distinction between core or advanced core is beyond its scope. A discussion of CTE and dual credit or dual enrollment science course taking is also beyond the entry’s scope. The significant variability in core high school science course taking and historic unequal distribution of opportunities highlights the need for ongoing monitoring of factors influencing course taking to promote equity in access and outcomes. This entry presents a brief history of standards and graduation requirements surrounding high school science course taking, then briefly reviews science course pathways classifications and current trends in course enrollment and completion. A review of current trends in the context of historical developments can help the high school science education policy and practice field take stock of some of the factors that influence current patterns. The entry is written with a lens towards broadening participation in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields and equity.

Bilingual education in the United States encompasses programs that use both English and students’ home languages to promote learning. It has been shaped by changing political priorities, policies, and debates over assimilation versus linguistic diversity. This entry reviews the history of bilingual education in the United States and how public opinion and political attitudes have shifted over time. It traces how policymakers and practitioners have viewed English language acquisition as either a tool of assimilation or as a resource for learning, and how support has moved from English-only immersion to dual language education programs. The discussion highlights how current assessment practices, focused on English-only standardized testing, have not kept pace with changing views of bilingual education. The entry concludes by identifying gaps in research and urging states to evaluate how comprehensively they serve their bilingual student population through their education policies and programs.

Studying academic momentum — the early accumulation of college-level credits and behaviors predictive of postsecondary success (Adelman, 2006; Attewell & Monaghan, 2016; Attewell et al., 2012; Barn...

Although high school science course‐taking is highly valued in college admissions, its predictability for college enrollment, a key step in access to many STEM fields, has not been sufficiently investigated in the context of wide variability in science courses and updated standards. Furthermore, while ability group tracking in science has declined, tracking can persist in the levels, type, and breadth of science courses taken. The study analyzes students' science course‐taking pathways from ninth through eleventh grade and examines their relationship with college enrollment. We use cross‐classified hierarchical logistic regression modeling of students nested within both course pathways and schools in a large urban school district, examining school and course pathway features and controlling for academic performance and student characteristics. An analysis of variance partitioning shows that science course pathways explain more of the variance in on‐time college enrollment than schools. Completing the three core science courses—biology, chemistry, and physics—remains a strong predictor of college enrollment, even in the context of updated science standards, but the presence of advanced science coursework in the pathway showed the strongest association with college enrollment. Greater school STEM‐orientation was associated with increased likelihood of college enrollment.