Landscape character assessment (LCA) is a widely used tool that integrates natural, cultural, and perceptual attributes to identify and portray landscape. In this study, we used the LCA method to identify the landscape characteristics of China at the national scale. Furthermore, we applied cultural and landscape structural factors along with spatial transmission to improve the identification system. First, we incorporated all the parameters in the assessment. We selected 15 landscape character factors from four factor types including nature, culture, spatial geographic co-ordinates, and landscape structure. These parameters were analysed using multilevel overlay and spatial connection tools in ArcGis 10.2, which resulted in 2307 landscape description units (LDUs). Second, the spatial structure properties of the LDUs were determined using a semivariogram and the moving window method in ArcGis 10.2 and Fragstats 4.2 software, respectively. Third, for visualisation, we applied the principal component analysis (PCA) using the SPSS software and elbow and k-means clustering methods using MATLAB to determine 110 landscape character types (LCTs) of China’s entire terrestrial landscape. Finally, we determined 1483 landscape character areas through semiautomatic segmentation and manual visual correction using eCognition. Based on the unique characteristics of the entire terrestrial landscape of China, a set of ideas and methods for the overall identification of LCTs was proposed. Our findings can be used to optimise territorial spatial planning and landscape protection and management, and promote multiscale land-use studies in China.

Agricultural heritage systems are receiving increasing attention due to their multifunctional role, their capability to provide ecosystem services, and for representing sustainable development models for rural areas. At the international level, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations launched in 2002 the Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS) Program to identify and safeguard traditional agro-silvo-pastoral systems that are the result of the adaptation of rural communities to the surrounding environments. Following this approach, similar national programs have been developed, among which the Italian National Register of Historical Rural Landscapes and the China Nationally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (China-NIAHS) initiative stand out. This research compares the China-NIAHS initiative and the Italian Register of Historical Rural Landscapes, highlighting similarities and differences and identifying strengths and weaknesses, to contribute to the development of proper tools for the conservation and valorization of agricultural heritage systems. Both initiatives were established in 2012 and share similar aims and inscription criteria, including historical and current significance, knowledge system and social structure, economic and productive framework, and causes of vulnerability. The main differences are related to the delimitation of the boundaries of the proposed sites and to the inscription process; in addition, while for the Italian National Register spatial analyses of land-use changes and landscape structure are mandatory according to a precise methodology, for the China-NIAHS no specific landscape analyses are required. The main critical issues are the lack of public participation and the lack of a monitoring plan after the inscription. The absence of monitoring is also the main vulnerability of the FAO GIAHS Programme. This research can offer important information for different stakeholders at the international, national, and local levels dealing with agricultural heritage conservation and valorization. In particular, it highlights the need of developing a multidisciplinary monitoring system with a standard methodology based on different indicators that can contribute to maximizing the impact of these initiatives. This research also provides useful information for the countries that are interested in developing a national initiative for agricultural heritage systems’ identification and valorization/conservation or for countries that intend to improve their national programs.

Traditional rural landscapes are multifunctional systems that represent examples of sustainable rural practices and development. This study developed a methodological framework for their identification at the national scale, based on high-resolution spatial analyses of different indicators of environmental, cultural, and socio-economic types. The methodology has been applied to the entire territory of China and then validated. Results demonstrate that China has a great potential regarding the presence of traditional landscapes. Traditional agricultural landscapes are more common in the east, scattered among intensive agricultural systems. Hotspots for traditional forest landscapes are located in Northeastern China and in the south. Traditional pastoral landscapes are instead related to extensive grazing and to sparsely populated areas. The strong correlation between the results of this study and the spatial distribution of the 188 NIAHS demonstrate the validity and reliability of the proposed methodological framework. This study provides high-resolution spatial data that can be used by different stakeholders involved in landscape management, conservation, and valorisation. The proposed framework can also be replicated and tested in different countries, for the development of national identification and conservation programmes, or for the selection of traditional cultural landscapes to be proposed for international programmes, such as the FAO GIAHS (Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems) Programme, or the UNESCO World Heritage List.