Chamomile and sage are common herbs that are mostly used as infusions due to their beneficial properties. The aims of this study were to determine the total phenolic content, antioxidant activity, and potential toxicity of chamomile and sage aqueous extracts prepared at three different temperatures (25, 80, 100 °C) and finally, to detect their phenolic profiles at the optimum temperature. In order to measure the total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity, Folin–Ciocalteu and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl hydrate (DPPH) assays were applied, respectively. The extraction temperature at 80 °C was the optimum, with maximal antioxidant activity and the highest total phenolic content for both herbs. Luminescence-based assay demonstrated that all the examined aqueous extracts possessed toxicity towards Vibrio fischeri. Microtox assay demonstrated no correlation with the other two assays, which were positively correlated. The major phenolics of chamomile were rutin trihydrate, ferulic acid, chlorogenic acid, and apigenin-7-O-glucoside; and major phenolics of sage were rosmarinic acid, salvianolic acid K, and luteolin-7-O-glucuronide, as defined by LC-MS of aqueous extracts at 80 °C. It can be concluded that the extraction of herbal aqueous extracts at 80 °C can provide significant bioactive and antioxidant compounds, but their consumption must be in moderation.

The aim of this review is to describe the chromatographic, spectrometric, and spectroscopic techniques applied to honey for the determination of botanical and geographical origin and detection of adulteration. Based on the volatile profile of honey and using Solid Phase microextraction-Gas chromatography-Mass spectrometry (SPME-GC-MS) analytical technique, botanical and geographical characterization of honey can be successfully determined. In addition, the use of vibrational spectroscopic techniques, in particular, infrared (IR) and Raman spectroscopy, are discussed as a tool for the detection of honey adulteration and verification of its botanical and geographical origin. Manipulation of the obtained data regarding all the above-mentioned techniques was performed using chemometric analysis. This article reviews the literature between 2007 and 2020.

In this study, the chemical composition of essential oils (EOs) extracted from Origanum vulgare ssp. hirtum Lamiaceae, (oregano), Salvia officinalis Lamiaceae (sage), Mentha pulegium Lamiaceae (pennyroyal), and respective hydrosols (HSs) has been investigated by Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). The antimicrobial activity was assessed against two oral pathogens: Gram-positive bacterium Streptococcus mutans and the fungus Candida albicans by determination of Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal/Fungicidal concentration (MBC/MFC). Three-fold diluted solutions were dispensed into each well of a 96-well microtiter plate and, after incubation, MIC was determined by visual monitoring. The MBC/MFC was determined by transferring a small quantity of sample contained in each replicate well of the microtiter plates to appropriate culture media using a microplate replicator. The EOs of the tested herbs showed antimicrobial properties, especially the EO oil of O. vulgare, which exerted the highest antimicrobial activity. HSs of S. officinalis and M. pulegium exerted no antimicrobial activity, in contrast to oregano HS, which displayed strong antimicrobial activity. In all cases, a higher number of compounds were detected in EOs than in the corresponding HSs. The major compounds of sage EO were detected to be α-thujone (25.1%), 1,8-cineole (15.8%) and β-pinene (10.0%), while the HS was characterized by the presence of 1,8-cineole (32.6%), borneol (22.6%) and α-thujone (22.4%). Pennyroyal EO and HS consists mainly of pulegone (62.1 and 50.6%, respectively). Carvacrol was the major component present in EO (63%) and HS (97.3%) of oregano, probably contributing to the antimicrobial activity. Further research is needed in order to elucidate the antimicrobial mechanisms of specific compounds present in essential oils and hydrosols of Lamiaceae grown in Greece against oral pathogens.