Plants integrate widely fluctuating temperatures to monitor seasonal progression. Here, we investigate the temperature signals in field conditions that result in vernalisation, the mechanism by which flowering is aligned with spring. We find that multiple, distinct aspects of the temperature profile contribute to vernalisation. In autumn, transient cold temperatures promote transcriptional shutdown of Arabidopsis FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC), independently of factors conferring epigenetic memory. As winter continues, expression of VERNALIZATION INSENSITIVE3 (VIN3), a factor needed for epigenetic silencing, is upregulated by at least two independent thermosensory processes. One integrates long-term cold temperatures, while the other requires the absence of daily temperatures above 15 °C. The lack of spikes of high temperature, not just prolonged cold, is thus the major driver for vernalisation. Monitoring of peak daily temperature is an effective mechanism to judge seasonal progression, but is likely to have deleterious consequences for vernalisation as the climate becomes more variable.

In Arabidopsis thaliana, winter is registered during vernalization through the temperature-dependent repression and epigenetic silencing of floral repressor FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC). Natural Arabidopsis accessions show considerable variation in vernalization. However, which aspect of the FLC repression mechanism is most important for adaptation to different environments is unclear. By analysing FLC dynamics in natural variants and mutants throughout winter in three field sites, we find that autumnal FLC expression, rather than epigenetic silencing, is the major variable conferred by the distinct Arabidopsis FLChaplotypes. This variation influences flowering responses of Arabidopsis accessions resulting in an interplay between promotion and delay of flowering in different climates to balance survival and, through a post-vernalization effect, reproductive output. These data reveal how expression variation through non-coding cis variation at FLC has enabled Arabidopsis accessions to adapt to different climatic conditions and year-on-year fluctuations.

Early blight of potato, caused by Alternaria solani, is an economically important foliar disease in most potato-growing regions. Growing cultivars with higher levels of resistance to early blight can reduce tuber yield losses and the need for fungicide applications. In this research, a bi-parental tetraploid potato population, segregating for resistance to early blight in leaves and tubers, was characterized to identify novel quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated with foliar and tuber early blight resistance. Assessment of the disease resistance in the foliage was performed by field evaluation and in tuber under controlled conditions. Results from this study revealed significant differences (P < 0.001) in resistance to A. solani among potato clones both in the leaves and in tubers. There was no statistically significant correlation (r = 0.06, P = 0.35) between the resistance scores from leaves and tubers. Several clones exhibited; however, high levels of resistance both in leaves and tubers and are; thus, promising candidates for breeding for early blight resistance. Linkage mapping revealed several QTL for early blight affecting both foliage and tubers. QTL associated with disease resistance in the tuber were found on chromosomes 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 11 and 12. QTL associated with disease resistance in foliage were also examined for independence from defoliation, and independent QTL were; thus, found on chromosomes 5 and 11.

Modern potato breeding methods following a genomic-led approach provide means for shortening breeding cycles and increasing breeding efficiency across selection cycles. Acquiring genetic data for large breeding populations remains expensive. We present a pipeline to reduce the number of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) to lower the cost of genotyping. First, we reduced the number of individuals to be genotyped with a high-throughput method according to the multi-trait variation as defined by principal component analysis of phenotypic characteristics. Next, we reduced the number of SNPs by pruning for linkage disequilibrium. By adjusting the square of the correlation coefficient between two adjacent loci, we obtained reduced subsets of SNPs. We subsequently tested these SNP subsets by two methods; (1) a genome-wide association study (GWAS) for marker identification, and (2) genomic selection (GS) to predict genomic estimated breeding values. The results indicate that both GWAS and GS can be done without loss of information after SNP reduction. The pipeline allows for creating custom SNP subsets to cover all variation found in any particular breeding population. Low-throughput genotyping will reduce the genotyping cost associated with large populations, thereby making genomic breeding methods applicable to large potato breeding populations by reducing genotyping costs.

Potato breeding relies heavily on visual phenotypic scoring for clonal selection. Obtaining robust phenotypic data can be labor intensive and expensive, especially in the early cycles of a potato breeding program where the number of genotypes is very large. We have investigated the power of genomic estimated breeding values (GEBVs) for selection from a limited population size in potato breeding. We collected genotypic data from 669 tetraploid potato clones from all cycles of a potato breeding program, as well as phenotypic data for eight important breeding traits. The genotypes were partitioned into a training and a test population distinguished by cycle of selection in the breeding program. GEBVs for seven traits were predicted for individuals from the first stage of the breeding program (T₁) which had not undergone any selection, or individuals selected at least once in the field (T₂). An additional approach in which GEBVs were predicted within and across full-sib families from unselected material (T₁) was tested for four breeding traits. GEBVs were obtained by using a Bayesian Ridge Regression model estimating single marker effects and phenotypic data from individuals at later stages of selection of the breeding program. Our results suggest that, for most traits included in this study, information from individuals from later stages of selection cannot be utilized to make selections based on GEBVs in earlier clonal generations. Predictions of GEBVs across full-sib families yielded similarly low prediction accuracies as across generations. The most promising approach for selection using GEBVs was found to be making predictions within full-sib families.

Plants monitor temperatures over long timescales to assess seasons and time developmental transitions. In Arabidopsis thaliana , winter is registered during vernalization through the temperature-dependent repression and epigenetic silencing of floral repressor FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC) . Natural Arabidopsis accessions show considerable variation in vernalization, however which aspect of the FLC repression mechanism is most important for adaptation to different climates is not clear. By analyzing FLC silencing in natural variants throughout winter in three field sites, we find that FLC starting levels and early phases of silencing are the major variables underlying vernalization response, rather than establishment of epigenetic silencing. This results in an intricate interplay between promotion and delay of flowering to balance survival, and through a post-vernalization effect of FLC , reproductive effort via branch production. These data reveal how non-coding FLC variation aligns vernalization response to different climatic conditions and year-on-year fluctuations in natural temperature profiles. Impact Statement: Alleles of the major floral repressor vary in their initial expression to underpin the ability of Arabidopsis to survive year-on-year climatic fluctuations.