The paper presents a conceptual model of the route of macroplastic debris (>5 mm) through a fluvial system, which can support future works on the overlooked processes of macroplastic storage and remobilization in rivers. We divided the macroplastic route into (1) input, (2) transport, (3) storage, (4) remobilization and (5) output phases. Phase 1 is mainly controlled by humans, phases 2–4 by fluvial processes, and phase 5 by both types of controls. We hypothesize that the natural characteristics of fluvial systems and their modification by dam reservoirs and flood embankments construction are key controls on macroplastic storage and remobilization in rivers. The zone of macroplastic storage can be defined as a river floodplain inundated since the beginning of widespread disposal of plastic waste to the environment in the 1960s and the remobilization zone as a part of the storage zone influenced by floodwaters and bank erosion. The amount of macroplastic in both zones can be estimated using data on the abundance of surface- and subsurface-stored macroplastic and the lateral and vertical extent of the zones. Our model creates the framework for estimation of how much plastic has accumulated in rivers and will be present in future riverscapes.

Religious tourism is one of the fastest growing and changing sectors of the world tourism market because of, among other things, social-cultural changes in the 20^th and 21^st centuries (i.e. the development of transport and mass tourism, globalization, secularization, and commercialization). Pilgrimage centres are important destinations also for general heritage tourism. Despite their global importance and growing popularity, there is still a lack of the knowledge about the complexity, multidimensionality, and diversity of journeys to pilgrimage centres. Here, the results from a comprehensive empirical study on visitors’ motivations and behaviours to pilgrimage centres in Poland are presented for the first time, to provide insight into contemporary religious tourism. The diversity and dependence of the main motivations, additional motivations, behaviours, and socio-demographic research sample indicators were analyzed. The motivations and behaviours are varied and multi-faceted, and include mainly religious and tourist factors, but are also related to cultural heritage tourism, recreation, social/family life, and additional factors. A conceptual model is presented of the motivations of pilgrimage centre visitors based on the push-pull motivational framework, adapted to religious tourism, taking into account the importance of the religious element – as an innovative contribution – summarized the studies.

The article presents the visitors’ motivations and behavior at the pilgrimage center in Krakow (Poland). Here, the relation between these elements, i.e. whether their motivations have a correlation with what buildings they visit, is emphasized for the first time. The most important motivations for visits were religious and tourist ones, often rated equally high by the same respondents. They visited religious, cultural and tourist buildings and facilities. The stay of visitors with religious motivations was not limited to religious practices, but was extended by tourist behavior. Similarly, visitors with tourist motivations visited religious buildings and participated in religious practices. However, they visit tourist and cultural facilities more often. Additionally, the three groups of respondents were categorized and, on the basis of importance of the religious and tourist motivations, three types were distinguished, i.e. pilgrims, religious tourists and tourists. Their characteristic has been expanded by the analysis of their behavior. Nowadays, visitors’ motivations and behavior at pilgrimage centers include those typical for pilgrims and tourists in the traditional meaning. In addition to their religious function, these sites offer cultural and tourist facilities. The article highlights the dedifferentiation approach to visitors’ motivations and behavior, and in respect of the spatial organization of pilgrimage centers.

Cultural ecosystem services (CES) and disservices shape landscape planning policy to a huge extent. We focus on the benefits and disbenefits associated with CES. The study aimed to explore the co-occurrence of the benefits and disbenefits associated with CES as well as the relationship between spatial and landscape characteristics and specific benefits and disbenefits. We conducted a map-based online questionnaire among visitors of two urban green spaces in Kraków, Poland (Wolski Forest and Jordan Park). Respondents were asked to map places visited and assign them benefits and disbenefits using indicator statements. We found three bundles of benefits (connection to nature, social bonding in nature and responsibility) and five to seven bundles of disbenefits (1). The experiences (e.g., strengthening social bonds) were more concentrated whereas the identities (e.g., reflection) were more blurred spatially owing to their individualistic nature (2). The relationship between benefits/disbenefits and landscape features showed a relatively weak correlation, with a more discernible pattern observed in the case of experiences and capabilities (3). Respondents perceived more human-related disbenefits (overcrowding, noise, rubbish), exhibiting a greater geographical concentration, especially in proximity to tourist attractions (4). The ecosystem-related disbenefits (insects, allergies) were less geographically concentrated (5). Furthermore, the study unveiled differences in the perception of disbenefits across seasons. Visitors of warmer months expressed concerns about overcrowding, insects, and allergies, while those exploring the study areas in winter indicated challenges associated with darkness and snow-covered paths (6). These are important implications for management to increase the comfort of visits to green spaces.

The socio-cultural changes in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, i.e. the development of mass tourism and transport, the secularization, the commercialization and globalization of societies and life as well as the blurring of the boundaries between tourism-pilgrimages in many aspects have influenced on pilgrimage centres. Previously, sanctuaries were only sacred buildings visited mainly by people with religious motivations (pilgrims). Nowadays, pilgrimage centres are developed with multiple buildings (called sacred complexes or religious-recreational parks), offering additional cultural and tourist facilities for visitors with diverse motivations (pilgrims, religious tourists, and tourists in the traditional meaning). Here, we present the changes of Roman Catholic pilgrimage centres in Europe and discuss them in the context of contemporary socio-cultural changes. Particular attention is paid to the sanctuaries’ spatial development as a factor reflecting changes in tourism in time, i.e. ‘new’ visitors’ needs, motivations, experiences, and other socio-cultural changes – i.e. the secularization and the commercialization. Based on the results from 28 most popular European pilgrimage centres we proposed two conceptual models. The first describes the stages of pilgrimage centres’ development, and the second is a model of a contemporary pilgrimage centre.