Streptococcus suis (ex Elliot 1966, Kilpper-Bälz & Schleifer 1987) is a facultatively anaerobic Gram-positive ovoid or coccal bacterium surrounded by a polysaccharide capsule. Based on the antigenic diversity of the capsule, S. suis strains are classified serologically into 35 serotypes....

Streptococcus suis is a re-emerging zoonotic pathogen that may cause severe disease, mostly meningitis, in pigs and in humans having occupational contact with pigs and pork, such as farmers, slaughterhose workers and butchers. The first stage of the pathogenic process, similar in pigs and humans, is adherence to and colonisation of mucosal and/or epithelial surface(s) of the host. The second stage is invasion into deeper tissue and extracellular translocation of bacterium in the bloodstream, either free in circulation or attached to the surface of monocytes. If S. suis present in blood fails to cause fatal septicaemia, it is able to progress into the third stage comprising penetration into host's organs, mostly by crossing the blood-brain barrier and/or blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier to gain access to the central nervous system (CNS) and cause meningitis. The fourth stage is inflammation that plays a key role in the pathogen esis of both systemic and CNS infections caused by S. suis. The pathogen may induce the overproduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines that cause septic shock and/or the recruitment and activation of different leukocyte populations, causing acute inflammation of the CNS. Streptococcus suis can also evoke - through activation of microglial cells, astrocytes and possibly other cell types - a fulminant inflammatory reaction of the brain which leads to intracranial complications, including brain oedema, increased intracranial pressure, cerebrovascular insults, and deafness, as a result of cochlear sepsis. In all stages of the pathogenic process, S. suis interacts with many types of immunocompetent host's cells, such as polymorphonuclear leukocytes, mononuclear macrophages, lymphocytes, dendritic cells and microglia, using a range of versatile virulence factors for evasion of the innate and adaptive immune defence of the host, and for overcoming environmental stress. It is estimated that S. suis produces more than 100 different virulence factors that could be classified into 4 groups: surface components or secreted elements, enzymes, transcription factors or regulatory systems and transporter factors or secretion systems. A major virulence factor is capsular polysaccharide (CPS) that protects bacteria from phagocytosis. However, it hampers adhesion to and invasion of host's cells, release of inflammatory cytokines and formation of the resistant biofilm which, in many cases, is vital for the persistence of bacteria. It has been demonstrated that the arising by mutation unencapsulated S. suis clones, which are more successful in penetration to and propagation within the host's cells, may coexist in the organism of a single host together with those that are encapsulated. Both 'complementary' clones assist each other in the successful colonization of host's tissues and persistence therein. S. suis has an open pan-genome characterized by a frequent gene transfer and a large diversity. Of the genetic determinants of S. suis pathogenicity, the most important are pathogenicity islands (PAI), in particular, a novel DNA segment of 89 kb length with evident pathogenic traits that has been designated as 89K PAI. It has been estimated that more than one-third of the S. suis virulence factors is associated with this PAI. It has been proved that the virulent S. suis strains possess smaller genomes, compared to avirulent ones, but more genes associated with virulence. Overall, the evolution of the species most probably aims towards increased pathogenicity, and hence the most significant task of the current research is an elaboration of a vaccine, efficient both for humans and pigs.

The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is widely distributed in the world; in central Europe, it is the most numerous wild species of the family Canidae. It can play the role of a definitive host for many intestinal parasites, including zoonotic helminths. Poland, with its geographical location (central Europe), is an interesting area for parasitological investigations of this species. The aim of this study was to evaluate and compare the prevalence of intestinal helminths in red foxes in different regions of Poland. Intestines of 473 red foxes from four different regions were examined using the sedimentation and counting technique (SCT). In addition, 344 samples of faeces were examined using flotation. Overall, intestinal helminths were found in 98.9% of red foxes. The average prevalence of detected parasites was as follows: Mesocestoides spp. (84.1%); hookworms (67.9%); Alaria alata (61.5%); Toxocara/Toxascaris (49.5%); Taenia spp. (42.5%); Echinococcus multilocularis (25.6%); and Trichuris vulpis (2.3%). The prevalence of the majority of parasite species was similar in each region. Significant differences between regions were observed in the case of E. multilocularis: a low prevalence in the south-western and northern regions (0% and 0.9%, respectively) and a high prevalence in the south-east and northeast (39.3% and 42.7%, respectively). In the case of A. alata, important differences were found between northern (96.5% and 93.7% in northern and northeast regions, respectively) and southern regions (15.2% and 24.7% for south-western and south-east regions, respectively). The percentage of positive samples obtained with coproscopic examination (except for Trichuris) was significantly lower than that obtained with SCT. Analysis of the prevalence estimated in individual regions with the use of both methods (flotation and SCT) showed a high correlation for all parasite species (except for Mesocestoides spp.). The flotation method also allowed us to detect the eggs of the lung nematode Eucoleus aerophilus (syn. Capillaria aerophila) (76.2% of positive foxes). This study showed a very high percentage of red foxes infected with intestinal helminths in different parts of Poland. Depending on the location, some differences were observed regarding the prevalence of dangerous zoonotic parasites, which should be considered in the assessment of infection risk for humans.

[i]Spiroplasma[/i] is a genus of wall-less, low-GC, small Gram-positive bacteria of the internal contractile cytoskeleton, with helical morphology and motility. The genus is classified within the class Mollicutes. [i]Spiroplasma[/i] / host interactions can be classified as commensal, pathogenic...

Introduction: This paper reviews the current knowledge and understanding of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. in humans, animals and the environment in 10 countries in the eastern part of Europe: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Poland, Romania, Serbia and Slovenia. Methods: Published scientific papers and conference proceedings from the international and local literature, official national health service reports, national databases and doctoral theses in local languages were reviewed to provide an extensive overview on the epidemiology, diagnostics and research on these pathogens, as well as analyse knowledge gaps and areas for further research. Results: Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. were found to be common in eastern Europe, but the results from different countries are difficult to compare because of variations in reporting practices and detection methodologies used. Conclusion: Upgrading and making the diagnosis/detection procedures more uniform is recommended throughout the region. Public health authorities should actively work towards increasing reporting and standardising reporting practices as these prerequisites for the reported data to be valid and therefore necessary for appropriate control plans.