Alternative oxidase (AOX) is a ubiquitous respiratory enzyme found in plants, fungi, protists and some bacterial species. One of the major questions about this enzyme is related to its metabolic role(s) in cellular physiology, due to its capacity to bypass the proton‐pumping cytochrome pathway, and as a consequence it has great energy‐wasting potential. In this study, the physiological role and regulatory mechanisms of AOX in the fungal phytopathogen Ustilago maydis were studied. We found evidence for at least two metabolic functions for AOX in this organism, as a major part of the oxidative stress‐handling machinery, a well‐described issue, and as part of the mechanisms that increase the metabolic plasticity of the cell, a role that might be valuable for organisms exposed to variations in temperature, nutrient source and availability, and biotic or abiotic factors that limit the activity of the cytochrome pathway. Experiments under different culture conditions of ecological significance for this organism revealed that AOX activity is modified by the growth stage of the culture, amino acid availability and growth temperature. In addition, nucleotide content, stimulation of AOX by AMP and respiratory rates obtained after inhibition of the cytochrome pathway showed that fungal/protist AOX is activated under low‐energy conditions, in contrast to plant AOX, which is activated under high‐energy conditions. An estimation of the contribution of AOX to cell respiration was performed by comparing the steady‐state concentration of adenine nucleotides, the mitochondrial membrane potential, and the respiratory rate.

The mitochondrial alternative oxidase is an important enzyme that allows respiratory activity and the functioning of the Krebs cycle upon disturbance of the respiration chain. It works as a security valve in transferring excessive electrons to oxygen, thereby preventing potential damage by the generation of harmful radicals. A clear biological function, besides the stress response, has so far convincingly only been shown for plants that use the alternative oxidase to generate heat to distribute volatiles. In fungi it was described that the alternative oxidase is needed for pathogenicity. Here, we investigate expression and function of the alternative oxidase at different stages of the life cycle of the corn pathogen Ustilago maydis (Aox1). Interestingly, expression of Aox1 is specifically induced during the stationary phase suggesting a role at high cell density when nutrients become limiting. Studying deletion strains as well as overexpressing strains revealed that Aox1 is dispensable for normal growth, for cell morphology, for response to temperature stress as well as for filamentous growth and plant pathogenicity. However, during conditions eliciting respiratory stress yeast-like growth as well as hyphal growth is strongly affected. We conclude that Aox1 is dispensable for the normal biology of the fungus but specifically needed to cope with respiratory stress.

Mitochondria of Saccharomyces cerevisiae lack the respiratory complex I, but contain three rotenone‐insensitive NADH dehydrogenases distributed on both the external (Nde1 and Nde2) and internal (Ndi1) surfaces of the inner mitochondrial membrane. These enzymes catalyse the transfer of electrons from NADH to ubiquinone without the translocation of protons across the membrane. Due to the high resolution of the Blue Native PAGE (BN–PAGE) technique combined with digitonin solubilization, several bands with NADH dehydrogenase activity were observed on the gel. The use of specific S. cerevisiae single and double mutants of the external alternative elements (ΔNDE1, ΔNDE2, ΔNDE1/ΔNDE2) showed that the high and low molecular weight complexes contained the Ndi1. Some of the Ndi1 associations took place with complexes III and IV, suggesting the formation of respirasome‐like structures. Complex II interacted with other proteins to form a high molecular weight supercomplex with a molecular mass around 600 kDa. We also found that the majority of the Ndi1 was in a dimeric form, which is in agreement with the recently reported three‐dimensional structure of the protein. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) —aspirin, naproxen, nimesulide, and piroxicam— lowered activation of type II cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA-II) in isolated rat adipocytes, decreasing adrenaline- and dibutyryl cAMP (Bt2cAMP)-stimulated lipolysis. The molecular bases of insulin-like actions of NSAID were studied. Based on the reported inhibition of lipolysis by H2O2, catalase was successfully used to block NSAID inhibitory action on Bt2cAMP-stimulated lipolysis. NSAID, at (sub)micromolar range, induced an H2O2 burst in rat adipocyte plasma membranes and in whole adipocytes. NSAID-mediated rise of H2O2 was abrogated in adipocyte plasma membranes by: diphenyleneiodonium, an inhibitor of NADPH oxidase (NOX); the NOX4 antibody; and cytochrome c, trapping the NOX-formed superoxide. These three compounds prevented the inhibition of Bt2cAMP-stimulated lipolysis by NSAIDs. Inhibition of aquaporin-mediated H2O2 transport with AgNO3 in adipocytes allowed NOX activation but prevented the lipolysis inhibition promoted by NSAID: i.e., once synthesized, H2O2 must reach the lipolytic machinery. Since insulin inhibits adrenaline-stimulated lipolysis, the effect of aspirin on isoproterenol-stimulated lipolysis in rat adipocytes was studied. As expected, isoproterenol-mediated lipolysis was blunted by both insulin and aspirin. NSAIDs activate NOX4 in adipocytes to produce H2O2, which impairs cAMP-dependent PKA-II activation, thus preventing isoproterenol-activated lipolysis. H2O2 signaling in adipocytes is a novel and important cyclooxygenase-independent effect of NSAID.