Repair of large bone defects is still a challenge for the orthopaedic, reconstructive and maxillo‐facial surgeon. Availability of pluripotent stem cells from either autologous or allogenic sources and the potential of inducing the osteogenic phenotype is motivating exploration and development of custom‐tailored materials known as “bioengineered bone constructs”. In such cases, the clinical scenario involves either expansion of stem cells in monolayer and loading them into a porous scaffold prior to surgery or direct cell expansion within the scaffold, and implanting this novel construct back into the donor patient. In this review, we delineate, from an engineering perspective, the progress that has been made to date and the challenges remaining in successfully translating this promising (but not yet definitively established) approach from bench to the bedsite.

Oxidative stress (OS) plays a pivotal role in diabetes mellitus (DM) onset, progression, and chronic complications. Hyperglycemia-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been shown to reduce insulin secretion from pancreatic β-cells, to impair insulin sensitivity and signaling in insulin-responsive tissues, and to alter endothelial cells function in both type 1 and type 2 DM. As a powerful antioxidant without side effects, astaxanthin (ASX), a xanthophyll carotenoid, has been suggested to contribute to the prevention and treatment of DM-associated pathologies. ASX reduces inflammation, OS, and apoptosis by regulating different OS pathways though the exact mechanism remains elusive. Based on several studies conducted on type 1 and type 2 DM animal models, orally or parenterally administrated ASX improves insulin resistance and insulin secretion; reduces hyperglycemia; and exerts protective effects against retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy. However, more experimental support is needed to define conditions for its use. Moreover, its efficacy in diabetic patients is poorly explored. In the present review, we aimed to identify the up-to-date biological effects and underlying mechanisms of ASX on the ROS-induced DM-associated metabolic disorders and subsequent complications. The development of an in-depth research to better understand the biological mechanisms involved and to identify the most effective ASX dosage and route of administration is deemed necessary.