The delivery of ecosystem services (ESs), particularly in urban agglomerations, faces substantial threats from impending future climate change and human activity. Assessing ES bundles (ESBs) is critical to understanding the spatial allocation and interactions between multiple ESs. However, dynamic projections of ESBs under various future scenarios are still lacking, and their underlying driving mechanisms have received insufficient attention. This study examined the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei urban agglomeration and proposed a framework that integrates patch-generating land use simulation into three shared socioeconomic pathway (SSP) scenarios and clustering analysis to assess spatiotemporal variations in seven ESs and ESBs from 1990 to 2050. The spatial trajectories of ESBs were analyzed to identify fluctuating regions susceptible to SSP scenarios. The results indicated that (1) different scenarios exhibited different loss rates of regulating and supporting services, where the mitigation of degradation was most significant under SSP126. The comprehensive ES value was highest under SSP245. (2) Bundles 1 and 2 (dominated by regulating and supporting services) had the largest total proportion under SSP126 (51.92 %). The largest total proportion of Bundles 4 and 5 occurred under SSP585 (48.96 %), with the highest provisioning services. The SSP126 scenario was projected to have the least ESB fluctuation at the grid scale, while the most occurred under SSP585. (3) Notably, synergies between regulating/supporting services were weaker under SSP126 than under either SSP245 or SSP585, while trade-offs between water yield and non-provisioning services were strongest. (4) Forestland and grassland proportions significantly affected carbon sequestration and habitat quality. Climatic factors (precipitation and temperature) acted as the dominant drivers of provisioning services, particularly water yield. Our findings advocate spatial strategies for future regional ES management to address upcoming risks.

Accelerated urbanization and population growth lead to the fragmentation of urban green space and loss of biodiversity. There are few studies on the integration of structural and functional connectivity to solve this problem. Our study aims to draw up a methodology to synthesize two methods of connectivity evaluation, accordingly, to construct an urban green infrastructure (UGI) network which is of great significance to maintain the stability of the urban ecosystem. Taking Beijing as a study area, we first used Morphological Spatial Pattern Analysis (MSPA) to identify the source patches, then combined with the graph theory-based landscape metrics to discuss the effect of different diffusion distances on the regional landscape connectivity and classify the importance level of the source patches. Finally, we used both least-cost path (LCP) and circuit theory to construct network and identify pinch areas in corridors for network optimization. The results show that (1) the landscape connectivity of the study area is obviously polarized. Source patches in mountain and hilly areas have good ecological bases and large areas, and the density of corridors is relatively high, which makes a large contribution to the overall landscape connectivity; Source patches in plain areas are severely fragmented, and there are only a small number of potential corridors connecting urban areas and suburban areas. (2) The UGI network is composed of 70 source patches and 148 potential corridors. The diffusion distance that is most beneficial to improve landscape connectivity is 20–25 km. (3) 6 pinch areas that are of great significance for improving the connectivity of the landscape present the coexistence of high migration resistance and large optimization potential, and urgently need to be restored first. This study provides a method to combine the structural and the functional analysis to construct a UGI network and formulate more scientifical protection strategies for planning departments.

Identifying the individual and combined hydrological response of land use landscape pattern and climate changes is key to effectively managing the ecohydrological balance of regions. However, their nonlinearity, effect size, and multiple causalities limit causal investigations. Therefore, this study aimed to establish a comprehensive methodological framework to quantify changes in the landscape pattern and climate, evaluate trends in streamflow response, and analyze the attribution of streamflow events in five basins in Beijing from the past to the future. Future climate projections were based on three general circulation models (GCMs) under two shared socioeconomic pathways (SSPs). Additionally, the landscape pattern in 2035 under a natural development scenario was simulated by the patch-generating land use simulation (PLUS). The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) was applied to evaluate the streamflow spatial and temporal dynamics over the period 2005-2035 with multiple scenarios. A bootstrapping nonlinear regression analysis and boosted regression tree (BRT) model were used to analyze the individual and combined attribution of landscape pattern and climate changes on streamflow, respectively. The results indicated that in the future, the overall streamflow in the Beijing basin would decrease, with a slightly reduced peak streamflow in most basins in the summer and a significant increase in the autumn and winter. The nonlinear quadratic regression more effectively explained the impact of landscape pattern and climate changes on streamflow. The trends in the streamflow change depended on where the relationship curve was in relation to the threshold. In addition, the impacts of landscape pattern and climate changes on streamflow were not isolated but were joint. They presented a nonlinear, non-uniform, and coupled relationship. Except for the YongDing River Basin, the annual streamflow change was influenced more by the landscape pattern. The dominant factors and the critical pair interactions varied from basin to basin. Our findings have implications for city planners and managers for optimizing ecohydrological functions and promoting sustainable development.

The construction of ecological networks within the context of urbanization is an effective approach to cope with the challenges of urban biodiversity decline, representing a crucial goal in urban planning and development. However, existing studies often overlook the richness and uniqueness within species communities by homogenizing traits of species in the same class. This study proposes a framework for constructing and optimizing ecological networks focused on differential conservation within the same class. By classifying birds into three groups (specialists of water, forest or urban areas) based on their ecological requirements and urbanization tolerance, we constructed an ecological network tailored to their distinct migratory dispersal patterns. We then identified strategic areas including pinch points, barriers, and breakpoints specific to each bird group. Our findings reveal notable variations in suitable habitat distribution among different bird groups in urban environments. Corridor layouts varied according to habitat preferences and migratory dispersal patterns. Despite these differences, urban built-up areas persist as central hubs for the distribution of suitable habitats for 75% of bird species, with peripheral mountain-plain transition areas constituting 63% of crucial dispersal corridors. This emphasizes the critical role of urban built-up areas in maintaining biodiversity and ecological connectivity. Prioritizing connectivity between central urban areas and distant natural spaces is imperative. Our approach innovatively classifies and constructs networks to identify strategic areas with diverse species-specific attributes, providing valuable spatial information for land planning and guiding solutions to enhance target species. While the primary focus is on bird conservation in Beijing, our framework is broadly applicable to global biodiversity management and green planning under urbanization challenges. Overall, this study offers innovative insights for urban planning development and serves as decision support for prioritizing urban actions.

Since 2013, China has implemented a series of strict Air Pollution Control Strategies (APCS) to mitigate environmental and health risks associated with ambient fine particulate matter (PM_2.5). However, while APCS sets clear targets for PM_2.5 concentration, it lacks quantitative control over O₃ levels. Most existing studies have focused on nation-wide health assessments. Therefore, by conducting a coupled framework using health assessment and decomposition method, the spatiotemporal variation in deaths attributable to PM_2.5 pollution, as well as the role of APCS and the synergies between PM_2.5 and O₃ on PM_2.5 concentration and health impacts in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) region have been explored. The result showed that: (1) PM_2.5 concentration in the BTH region decreased by 68.2%, with a reduction of 45,833 (95% Confidence Interval [CI]: 33,808, 50,069) deaths over the period. However, both concentrations and mortality remained high, indicating a need for faster reductions. (2) End-of-pipe control contributed the most to reducing PM_2.5 concentrations and deaths, though the gaps between source control and end-of-pipe control is narrowing. (3) The synergistic effects of O₃ and PM_2.5 in reducing concentration and mortality have increased, becoming a significant driver of PM_2.5-related health impacts. Our study emphasizes the future importance of implementing refined, diverse emission reduction measures and coordinating efforts to reduce both O₃ and PM_2.5 emissions, which are crucial for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and advancing the "Beautiful China" and "Healthy China" initiatives.

Objective Currently, urban built-up areas have a good green coverage rate, and urban development has entered a new stage of stock improvement from incremental expansion. In view of this, how should we better promote the integration of urban parks, boost the harmonious coexistence between human and nature, and meet the new needs and expectations of the people for getting close to nature and better enjoying leisure and recreation as well as sports and fitness in high-density environments? The opening and sharing of urban green spaces has become an important trend in the development of urban living environment in the new era, and the exploration of the concept of opening and sharing and the construction path for urban parks and green spaces is of important practical significance and theoretical value. Since its implementation at the beginning of the year, park opening and sharing has received quite positive response, but in the initial stage, the maximum value of park opening and sharing has not been fully realized. Therefore, summarizing the construction measures and paths for parks and green spaces is of great significance for promoting the practical implementation of urban green space construction in China. Methods/process With the continuous growth of urban population, available recreational spaces have become increasingly scarce, especially in high-density environments where open spaces such as parks and green spaces have become scarce resources, which endows the current opening and sharing of parks and green spaces with great significance. Based on the four major measures currently implemented and potential improvement directions, this research proposes a fine construction path for parks and green spaces in the new era from the four aspects of space, maintenance, management, and operation, which is hereby described as follows. 1) Further open green spaces by opening up space boundaries, and create park-like scenes. The existing open green spaces are mainly concentrated in large urban parks, and the service radius of parks in high-density urban areas is insufficient to achieve green welfare for all in the city. Therefore, more open green space is needed in limited construction areas. In order to achieve accessible and experiential green spaces opened to and shared by all, it is supposed to open up space boundaries and create a green space connectivity network. 2) Ensure more scientific maintenance with a focus on maintenance mechanisms and means to promote harmonious coexistence between human and nature. In addition to the existing maintenance methods of land improvement, regular fertilization, and pest control, for accessible open lawns and green spaces, scientific considerations need to be made in terms of maintenance cost, mechanism, and method. 3) Achieve more precise management that emphasizes multi-party co-construction and co-governance and follows the people-centered concept, to widely absorb social forces and attract the public to participate in green space construction. Adhering to the people-centered approach and fully mobilizing public participation in the management and organization of parks and green spaces is an important way to comprehensively coordinate social interests in green space construction. Multi-party co-construction and co-governance is conducive to enhancing the sense of participation, belonging and responsibility of citizens, and promoting the sustainable development of urban parks and green spaces. 4) Operate more reasonably, transform management and maintenance concepts and methods, and enable park operations to drive urban development. To achieve this, it is supposed to optimize the spatial layout of supply, increase diverse festival planning, and improve supporting infrastructure during park operations, and incorporate the construction of park-like scenarios into event operations following the principle of benefiting all age groups in a full-time manner. Results/conclusion The opening and sharing of parks and green spaces is a new starting point for the harmonious coexistence between human and nature in the Chinese road to modernization. With the improvement of the opening level and development of parks and green spaces, various provinces and cities in China will also optimize and upgrade their construction paths based on spatial opening, boundary connectivity and sharing, scientific and precise maintenance, multi-party co-construction and co-governance and park operation to meet supply and demand needs under current important measures. This will achieve the scientific, standardized, and rational opening and sharing of urban green spaces, so that parks and green spaces can not only deepen the people-centered concept, but also become an important means to support the high-quality development of cities, thus achieving harmonious coexistence between human and nature, and highlighting the important value of parks and green spaces as public welfare and public products. This research may provide theoretical reference and guidance for the opening and sharing of parks and green spaces across the country, provide scientific support and guidance for the high-quality construction and use and efficient governance of urban parks and green spaces, and provide positive support for the sustainable development of cities. In the future, the opening and sharing of parks and green spaces will not be limited to the provision of leisure and entertainment space for citizens, but will also assist cities in achieving industrial transformation and incubation in combination with such contents as economic layout, intelligent digital technology, optimization and upgrading of green space layout, and operation management.