Processing quality of winter-wheat is affected by genotype, environmental conditions, and crop husbandry practices. In the present study, a data set of 17 quality-related traits for 211 main winter-wheat varieties in China during 2006 to 2018 was extracted from China Wheat Quality Report. Analysis was carried out to evaluate the quality status and variations, to reveal correlation between quality-related traits, as well as to identify key influencing factors. Results indicated that the quality indicators of medium-gluten or medium-strong-gluten wheat varieties were acceptable, whereas those of weak- and strong-gluten wheat varieties were far below national standard, especially hardness index (HI), crude protein content (CPC), wet gluten content (WG), and water absorption for weak-gluten wheat and sedimentation value (SV), stability time (ST), and stretch area (SA) for strong-gluten wheat, respectively. Correlation analysis showed that WA, WG, development time, HI, CPC, falling number, ST, and tractility directly affected the overall quality of winter-wheat. CPC, SV, and WG in medium-gluten wheat had no significant correlation with the processing quality of noodles score, whereas gluten index significantly correlated with noodle score (P < 0.001). This implied that protein quality might play a more important role than protein quantity in determining medium-gluten wheat quality. Furthermore, analysis of variance showed that genetic characteristics (cultivars) had significant influences on the restriction indexes (SV, ST, and SA) of strong-gluten wheat, whereas genetic characteristics, environment conditions, and crop growing practices (cultivars, locations, and years) significantly affected the restriction indexes (HI, CPC, WG, and WA) of weak-gluten wheat. The results suggest that improvement of Chinese strong-gluten wheat should mainly focus on cultivating new varieties. As to weak-gluten wheat, cultivation and husbandry practices should be paid more attention to limit undesired high grain protein content.

Raising attentions have focused on how to alleviate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from orchard system while simultaneously increase fruit production. Microalgae-based biofertilizer represents a promising resource for improving soil fertility and higher productivity. However, the effects of microalgae application more especially live microalgae on GHG emissions are understudied. In this study, fruit yield and quality, GHG emissions, as well as soil organic carbon and nitrogen fractions were examined in a hawthorn orchard, under the effects of live microalgae-based biofertilizer applied at three doses and two modes. Compared with conventional fertilization, microalgae improved hawthorn yield by 15.7%−29.6% with a maximal increment at medium dose by root application, and significantly increased soluble and reducing sugars contents at high dose. While microalgae did not increase GHG emissions except for nitrous oxide at high dose by root application, instead it significantly increased methane uptake by 1.5−2.3 times in root application. In addition, microalgae showed an increasing trend in soil organic carbon content, and significantly increased the contents of soil dissolved organic carbon and microbial biomass carbon, as well as soil ammonium nitrogen and dissolved organic nitrogen at medium dose with root application. Overall, the results indicated that the live microalgae could be used as a green biofertilizer for improving fruit yield without increasing GHG emissions intensity and the comprehensive greenhouse effect, in particular at medium dose with root application. We presume that if lowering chemical fertilizer rates, application of the live microalgae-based biofertilizer may help to reduce nitrous oxide emissions without compromising fruit yield and quality.

China is a major producer of green tea, and most of its green tea production comes from small farmers. Accessing the carbon emission status of this group can provide data support and a decision-making basis for the realization of carbon neutrality in China’s tea industry. In this study, the life cycle assessment method was used to analyze the carbon footprint of green tea produced by smallholder farmers in Liugou Village, Hanzhong City, Shaanxi Province. The results showed that the carbon emission intensity of green tea for its entire life cycle was 32.90 kg CO₂eq kg⁻¹ dry tea, and the carbon emission intensities of its consumption, processing, and cultivation were 14.90, 7.94, and 6.97 kg CO₂eq kg⁻¹, respectively. In the processing stage, emissions during steaming and drying accounted for 57%. The use of coal, complicated processing procedures, and older equipment were the main reasons for the high emissions in the processing stage. In the cultivation process, emissions mainly came from fertilizer production and its application in the field. The energy consumption of boiling water resulted in high carbon emissions in the consumption stage. This study suggests that building a scientific fertilization system for tea gardens, optimizing processing equipment and energy utilization structure, and cultivating the concept of low-carbon consumption will be the keys to promoting smallholder farmers to reduce carbon emissions. This study further emphasizes that we should focus on carbon emissions caused by the production processes of small farmers.

Agricultural production is a crucial and fundamental aspect of a stable society in China that depends heavily on the climate situation. With the desire to achieve future sustainable development, China’s government is taking actions to adapt to climate change and to ensure food self-sufficiency. This paper assesses the scientific literature from both domestic and international journals, and the review policies released by the Chinese government, in order to investigate the adaptive actions being taken in China at the scale of the central government, and at the local administration and individual farmer level. The results demonstrate that China’s government has undertaken a multitude of adaptation programs in order to cope with vulnerability in the agricultural sector, and these include the release of stimulus policies, the support of new technological research, and investments in field facilities to strengthen the building of adaptive capacity. At the farmer household level, we found that people are spontaneously adapting to climate change on their own accord by changing the timing of cultivations, and through the selection of other crop species and cultivars. People are also securing non-land-related jobs when confronted with climate disasters. A summary is presented of the various agricultural adaptation policies and technologies. Although China has made great progress in terms of adapting to climate change, there is still more work that needs to be done. This work entails not just agricultural policy stimulation but also non-structural components, such as raising public awareness and providing adaptive skill training, etc. It can be concluded that agriculture sector could seek advantages and avoid disadvantages from adaptation activities by multiple stakeholders from different perspectives, and reduce the adverse effects of climate change. Climate adaptation strategies and actions are important and indispensable components for agricultural development in China, and more advanced technologies and ideologies are needed for a secure future.

Elevated atmospheric CO₂ concentrations (eCO₂) has become the main feature and cause of global change that could affect crop growth in many aspects, including physiological processes and morphological development in plants and nutrient cycling and nutrient uptake from the soil. Studying the responses of crop growth to different nitrogen (N) supply forms under elevated atmospheric CO₂ concentrations can guide nutrient management strategies for agricultural production under future climate change scenarios. Few studies addressed the effect of eCO₂ on N uptake and morphological development for plants. This study was conducted in the CO₂-controlled light incubators based on the sand-pot incubation using wheat and maize as experimental plants. Six treatments were set with two different environmental CO₂ concentrations (aCO₂, 390 µmol mol⁻¹; eCO₂, 690 µmol mol⁻¹) and three different N supply forms, including ammonium−N, nitrate−N and ammonium-nitrate with 1:1 ratio. The following results were obtained: (i) Wheat and maize seedlings, as nitrate-preferring crops, grew better under mixed N forms than under single N forms. For the single N supply treatment, seedlings with nitrate−N supply showed better growth than with ammonium. (ii) For wheat plants, seedlings with a single ammonium−N supply showed slender height and fewer tillers; seedlings with a single nitrate−N supply were characterized by slightly shorter plant height, more tillers, and higher aboveground biomass. (iii) Compared to the aCO₂ group, wheat seedlings with the ammonium−N supply showed an increased maximum root length and a decreased carbon concentration in root exudates; wheat seedlings with a single nitrate−N supply under eCO₂ showed a significant increase in biomass and a decreased carbon concentration in root exudates; wheat seedlings with a mixed N supply under eCO₂ explored a significant increase in carbon concentration in root exudate and a relatively lower N concentration. (iv) For maize plants, seedlings with either single ammonium−N or nitrate−N supply did not show significant differences in most growing indices. Maize seedlings with a mixed N supply exhibited an increase in aboveground biomass and N concentration in root exudates compared to those with a single N supply. (v) Compared with the aCO₂ group, maize seedlings with mixed N supply under eCO₂ conditions exhibited significant increases in plant height, aboveground biomass, and N concentration in root exudates. Single ammonium−N supply was toxic to wheat and maize plants under eCO₂ conditions. We recommend raising the ratio of ammonium-to-nitrate under mixed N supply to improve the coordination of carbon and N metabolism for efficient crop growth under climatic change conditions of elevated atmospheric CO₂ concentration.