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Prof. Pamela Wicker
Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany

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0 Environmental Impact Assessment
0 sport management
0 Sport Consumer Behavior
0 sport sociology
0 Sport and Health

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Professor for Sport Management and Sport Sociology, Bielefeld University, Germany

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Research article
Published: 30 June 2021 in Managing Sport and Leisure
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This study examines gender differences in human capital, performance characteristics, and earnings among elite athletes in semi-professional sports in Germany. In 2018, a nationwide online survey of elite athletes supported by the German Sports Aid Foundation was conducted where they were asked about their life and earnings situation (n = 1064). Regression analyses were estimated to identify the role of gender while controlling for human capital and performance characteristics. The results showed a significant gender earnings gap in favor of male athletes for annual earnings and calculatory wage rate. This gap is mainly driven by gender differences in earnings from work and public sport funding, while financial support from the German Sports Aid Foundation and from family/friends attenuated the gap. The results can be explained by treatment discrimination and male athletes’ preferences for current work, while female athletes invested significantly more time into studying/learning and their human capital, respectively. The findings have implications for funding institutions as well as people involved in supporting elite athletes in semi-professional sports. Since earnings data are typically not publicly available, this study relies on unique data to examine athletes’ earnings taking a gender perspective.

ACS Style

Pamela Wicker; Christoph Breuer; Sören Dallmeyer. The gender earnings gap among elite athletes in semi-professional sports. Managing Sport and Leisure 2021, 1 -18.

AMA Style

Pamela Wicker, Christoph Breuer, Sören Dallmeyer. The gender earnings gap among elite athletes in semi-professional sports. Managing Sport and Leisure. 2021; ():1-18.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Pamela Wicker; Christoph Breuer; Sören Dallmeyer. 2021. "The gender earnings gap among elite athletes in semi-professional sports." Managing Sport and Leisure , no. : 1-18.

Original article
Published: 21 June 2021 in European Journal for Sport and Society
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This study investigates the role of regional and social origin in explaining health-related sport and physical activity levels of youths and adolescents in Europe. It uses a subsample of 15- to 29-year-olds from the 2017 Eurobarometer (n = 3499). The outcome variable reflects whether respondents meet/exceed the guidelines of the World Health Organisation for health-related sport and physical activity or not. Regional origin is captured by four different European regions. Social origin is measured by parental education, a household’s difficulty paying bills, and the perceived social status of parents. The results show that young people in Southern and Eastern Europe are significantly less likely to meet the guidelines than those in Midwest Europe. While parental education is only a positive contributor in Midwest Europe, a household’s financial resources only play a role in Eastern Europe. Perceived social status increases young people’s likelihood of health-related sport and physical activity in all European regions except Eastern Europe. Collectively, the findings suggest that higher social origin facilitates health-related participation levels, while different factors are at work in different European regions. This study contributes to the literature by providing an international comparison of the role of social origin and by examining young people’s health-related sport participation levels.

ACS Style

Sebastian Gehrmann; Pamela Wicker. The effect of regional and social origin on health-related sport and physical activity of young people in Europe. European Journal for Sport and Society 2021, 1 -18.

AMA Style

Sebastian Gehrmann, Pamela Wicker. The effect of regional and social origin on health-related sport and physical activity of young people in Europe. European Journal for Sport and Society. 2021; ():1-18.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sebastian Gehrmann; Pamela Wicker. 2021. "The effect of regional and social origin on health-related sport and physical activity of young people in Europe." European Journal for Sport and Society , no. : 1-18.

Original research article
Published: 31 May 2021 in Frontiers in Sports and Active Living
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Environmentally friendly behavior has become increasingly important in recent years to reduce the speed of climate change and its negative impacts. Individual behavior, including environmentally friendly behavior, is largely formed by behavioral intentions. This study draws on the theory of planned behavior to examine the effects of attitudes toward the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control on intentions of environmentally friendly behavior. It also investigates differences between genders and among sports. The study is based on data from a nationwide online survey of community sports club members in Germany in five team/racket sports (n = 3,036). Existing measures to operationalize the constructs were adapted to the present research context. The data were analyzed using structural equation modeling. The results show that the theoretical assumptions of the theory of planned behavior were largely supported by the data, implying that the antecedents of environmentally friendly behavioral intentions can be applied to club members. Furthermore, gender- and sports-specific differences in the antecedents–intention relationship were detected. This study is among the first to examine environmentally friendly behavioral intentions in community sports clubs. It adds to an increasing body of research investigating environmental sustainability in sports.

ACS Style

Michael Braksiek; Tim F. Thormann; Pamela Wicker. Intentions of Environmentally Friendly Behavior Among Sports Club Members: An Empirical Test of the Theory of Planned Behavior Across Genders and Sports. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living 2021, 3, 1 .

AMA Style

Michael Braksiek, Tim F. Thormann, Pamela Wicker. Intentions of Environmentally Friendly Behavior Among Sports Club Members: An Empirical Test of the Theory of Planned Behavior Across Genders and Sports. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living. 2021; 3 ():1.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Michael Braksiek; Tim F. Thormann; Pamela Wicker. 2021. "Intentions of Environmentally Friendly Behavior Among Sports Club Members: An Empirical Test of the Theory of Planned Behavior Across Genders and Sports." Frontiers in Sports and Active Living 3, no. : 1.

Research article
Published: 27 May 2021 in Journal of Sport & Tourism
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The purposes of this study were to estimate the carbon footprint caused by football fans travelling to Bundesliga matches (first division) in Germany in the 2018/19 season, to analyse determinants of seasonal carbon footprint, and to identify fan clusters based on travel behaviour. A nationwide online survey of football fans was conducted (n = 539) asking respondents to report their match-related travel behaviour. The average seasonal carbon footprint of a Bundesliga fan amounted 311.1 kg of carbon dioxide equivalent emissions (CO2-e), with car travel accounting for 70% of the emissions. The aggregate carbon footprint of all fans for the whole Bundesliga season was 369,765.2 t CO2-e. Buying out of these carbon emissions would cost over €9.2 million in total. The regression results revealed that club membership and commitment to favourite club significantly increased fans’ carbon footprint. The choice of favourite Bundesliga club also predicted carbon footprint, with fans of FC Bayern Munich and RB Leipzig producing a significantly higher carbon footprint than fans of Borussia Dortmund. The segmentation of Bundesliga fans by their travel behaviour identified three distinct clusters: Devoted travellers (19%), home fans (30%) and casual visitors (51%). These clusters differed significantly in terms of emissions per kilometre travelled, car use versus public transport, club membership, fan commitment, environmental consciousness, education and age. The findings have practical implications for policy makers, Bundesliga officials and club authorities, and can serve as a basis for initiatives to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in professional team sports.

ACS Style

Christian Loewen; Pamela Wicker. Travelling to Bundesliga matches: the carbon footprint of football fans. Journal of Sport & Tourism 2021, 25, 253 -272.

AMA Style

Christian Loewen, Pamela Wicker. Travelling to Bundesliga matches: the carbon footprint of football fans. Journal of Sport & Tourism. 2021; 25 (3):253-272.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Christian Loewen; Pamela Wicker. 2021. "Travelling to Bundesliga matches: the carbon footprint of football fans." Journal of Sport & Tourism 25, no. 3: 253-272.

Journal article
Published: 01 May 2021 in Journal of Sport Management
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The identification of relevant effects is challenging in Big Data because larger samples are more likely to yield statistically significant effects. Professional sport teams attempting to identify the core drivers behind their follower numbers on social media also face this challenge. The purposes of this study are to examine the effects of game outcomes on the change rate of followers using big social media data and to assess the relative impact of determinants using dominance analysis. The authors collected data of 644 first division football clubs from Facebook (n = 297,042), Twitter (n = 292,186), and Instagram (n = 312,710) over a 19-month period. Our fixed-effects regressions returned significant findings for game outcomes. Therefore, the authors extracted the relative importance of wins, draws, and losses through dominance analysis, indicating that a victory yielded the highest increase in followers. For practitioners, the findings present opportunities to develop fan engagement, increase the number of followers, and enter new markets.

ACS Style

Daniel Weimar; Brian P. Soebbing; Pamela Wicker. Dealing With Statistical Significance in Big Data: The Social Media Value of Game Outcomes in Professional Football. Journal of Sport Management 2021, 35, 266 -277.

AMA Style

Daniel Weimar, Brian P. Soebbing, Pamela Wicker. Dealing With Statistical Significance in Big Data: The Social Media Value of Game Outcomes in Professional Football. Journal of Sport Management. 2021; 35 (3):266-277.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Daniel Weimar; Brian P. Soebbing; Pamela Wicker. 2021. "Dealing With Statistical Significance in Big Data: The Social Media Value of Game Outcomes in Professional Football." Journal of Sport Management 35, no. 3: 266-277.

Research article
Published: 08 April 2021 in Applied Economics Letters
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While the birthday effect has been widely studied in the economics and sport literature, this study introduces the concept of the ‘real’ birthday effect. It holds that birthday celebrations yield fatigue, which negatively affect running performance. The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of players’ birthdays on post-birthday running performance using data from the German Football Bundesliga (2011–2018). The dataset includes 1,040 different field players who played in 2,142 matches (n= 49,233). Running performance was measured by the total distance covered during the game (in m per minute) and the number of intensive runs (>20 and <24 km/h; per minute). On average, players ran 123.68 m and performed 0.70 intensive runs per minute, which are equivalent to 11.1 km and 63 intensive runs during a 90-minute match. The results of fixed effects panel regression analyses, which also control for various player, game, and team characteristics, show that players perform significantly fewer intensive runs on the day following their birthday. This finding supports the concept of the ‘real’ birthday effect. Football coaches should reconsider fielding players on match days succeeding their birthday as these players perform significantly fewer intensive runs.

ACS Style

Pamela Wicker; Daniel Weimar; Johannes Orlowski. The ‘real’ birthday effect: post-birthday running performance of Football Bundesliga players. Applied Economics Letters 2021, 1 -5.

AMA Style

Pamela Wicker, Daniel Weimar, Johannes Orlowski. The ‘real’ birthday effect: post-birthday running performance of Football Bundesliga players. Applied Economics Letters. 2021; ():1-5.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Pamela Wicker; Daniel Weimar; Johannes Orlowski. 2021. "The ‘real’ birthday effect: post-birthday running performance of Football Bundesliga players." Applied Economics Letters , no. : 1-5.

Journal article
Published: 05 March 2021 in Sustainability
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To reduce global warming and climate change, the German government plans to implement a carbon tax, which will also affect sport organizations. This study investigates how much sport club members are willing to pay for environmental measures and how sport-specific, club-specific, environmental, and socio-demographic factors are associated with their willingness-to-pay. In 2019 and 2020, active adult sport club members in five team/racket sports were sampled using an online survey in Germany (n = 3036). The contingent valuation method was applied to estimate sport club members’ willingness-to-pay for environmental measures. Regression analyses were employed to investigate a set of factors that are associated with club members’ decision to pay at all and the amount of willingness-to-pay. The results show that 64.3% of respondents reported a positive willingness-to-pay. The average willingness-to-pay for environmental measures amounts to EUR 14.53 per year and to EUR 22.59 for those reporting a positive willingness-to-pay. The results of t-tests show that club members stating a positive WTP differ significantly from members who are not willing to pay anything in terms of sport-specific, club-specific, environmental, and socio-demographic factors. The logistic regression results indicate that the likelihood of reporting a positive willingness-to-pay increases with increasing environmental consciousness, educational level, weekly practice hours, identification and satisfaction with the club, and subjective well-being, while age has a U-shaped effect. The results of a Tobit model show that the amount of willingness-to-pay is positively determined by environmental consciousness, educational level, and satisfaction with the club. The findings suggest that the majority of club members are willing to pay higher membership fees for the implementation of environmental measures in sport clubs. Increasing members’ level of environmental consciousness through educational initiatives represents a way for sport policy and sport managers to help increase financial support for environmental measures among club members.

ACS Style

Tim Thormann; Pamela Wicker. Willingness-to-Pay for Environmental Measures in Non-Profit Sport Clubs. Sustainability 2021, 13, 2841 .

AMA Style

Tim Thormann, Pamela Wicker. Willingness-to-Pay for Environmental Measures in Non-Profit Sport Clubs. Sustainability. 2021; 13 (5):2841.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Tim Thormann; Pamela Wicker. 2021. "Willingness-to-Pay for Environmental Measures in Non-Profit Sport Clubs." Sustainability 13, no. 5: 2841.

Main article
Published: 05 January 2021 in German Journal of Exercise and Sport Research
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Environmental sustainability and climate change have become increasingly important in public debates and politics. This study examines the determinants of sport club members’ pro-environmental behavior in Germany. Theoretically, we draw on the theory of planned behavior, ecofeminism, and the luxury good hypothesis to explain the effects of individuals’ environmental consciousness, gender, and income on their pro-environmental behavior, respectively. Data collection took place in 2019 and 2020 via a nationwide online survey of active sport club members in five team/racket sports (n = 3038). Regression analyses were estimated to examine the determinants of two indicators of pro-environmental behavior, i.e., the monthly carbon footprint resulting from traveling to training sessions and pro-environmental actions. The results reveal that environmentally consciousness members behave more environmentally friendly, supporting the theory of planned behavior. Women have a significantly higher carbon footprint, but only in the model including the interaction with environmental consciousness, indicating that female gender only works in conjunction with environmental attitudes. Income is associated with a significantly higher carbon footprint for training, while it has no effect on pro-environmental actions related to club sport. The findings have implications for sport managers and policy makers.

ACS Style

Tim F. Thormann; Pamela Wicker. Determinants of pro-environmental behavior among voluntary sport club members. German Journal of Exercise and Sport Research 2021, 51, 29 -38.

AMA Style

Tim F. Thormann, Pamela Wicker. Determinants of pro-environmental behavior among voluntary sport club members. German Journal of Exercise and Sport Research. 2021; 51 (1):29-38.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Tim F. Thormann; Pamela Wicker. 2021. "Determinants of pro-environmental behavior among voluntary sport club members." German Journal of Exercise and Sport Research 51, no. 1: 29-38.

Journal article
Published: 23 December 2020 in Sustainability
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Policy makers often legitimize bids for major sport events and public funding of elite sports by trickle-down effects, suggesting that hosting events, sporting success, and athlete role models inspire the population to participate themselves in sport and physical activity. According to previous review articles, empirical evidence of trickle-down effects are mixed, with several studies citing marginal or no effect. The purpose of this study is to apply a realist synthesis approach to evaluate under which conditions trickle-down effects occur (i.e., what works for whom under which circumstances?). Using rapid evidence assessment methodology, 58 empirical articles were identified in the search process and critically analyzed through the lens of realist synthesis evaluation. The analysis identified six conditions under which trickle-down effects have occurred: Event leveraging initiatives, capacity of community sport to cater for new participants, live spectating experiences, consumption possibilities on television or other media, and communities housing event venues. The findings have implications for the sustainability of sport policy decisions and public finance, as the likelihood of trickle-down effects increases with integrated planning and sustainable spending related to the above six conditions.

ACS Style

Luke Potwarka; Pamela Wicker. Conditions under Which Trickle-Down Effects Occur: A Realist Synthesis Approach. Sustainability 2020, 13, 69 .

AMA Style

Luke Potwarka, Pamela Wicker. Conditions under Which Trickle-Down Effects Occur: A Realist Synthesis Approach. Sustainability. 2020; 13 (1):69.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Luke Potwarka; Pamela Wicker. 2020. "Conditions under Which Trickle-Down Effects Occur: A Realist Synthesis Approach." Sustainability 13, no. 1: 69.

Earlycite article
Published: 18 December 2020 in Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal
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Purpose Although leadership succession is a popular area of study across different professional sports leagues, existing research has largely ignored South America despite Brazilian football seeming to surpass the limits of coaching turnovers in comparison to any other league worldwide. Design/methodology/approach This study examines the causes and consequences of 594 head coach turnovers in the Brasileirão from 2003 to 2018. A comprehensive longitudinal dataset was compiled (n = 13,012) and a series of regression analysis evaluated the determinants of coaching replacements as well as their effect on team performance. Findings Statistical results revealed that coaching survival is significantly determined by a negative spell of three to four games, parallel competitions and performance expectations with three games in advance. Regarding performance outcomes, it takes seven games for a slight sign of improvement to be identified after a coach turnover, but no clear positive effects are recognized as an aftermath, supporting the ritual scapegoating theory. Practical implications The findings suggest that decision makers should consider the importance of a rational evaluation and the crucial component of time instead of judging coaches based on subjectivity and immediate results. Meanwhile, coaches should avoid voluntary turnovers, exercising priorities ahead of continental cups and sequences with few points accumulated. Originality/value This investigation discloses a valuable reference for coaches, sport managers and academic scholars interested in Brazilian football, as it extends knowledge development and theoretical understanding for a region that still lacks scientific evidence to back up its practical assumptions in sports.

ACS Style

Matheus Galdino; Pamela Wicker; Brian P. Soebbing. Gambling with leadership succession in Brazilian football: head coach turnovers and team performance. Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal 2020, 11, 245 -264.

AMA Style

Matheus Galdino, Pamela Wicker, Brian P. Soebbing. Gambling with leadership succession in Brazilian football: head coach turnovers and team performance. Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal. 2020; 11 (3):245-264.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Matheus Galdino; Pamela Wicker; Brian P. Soebbing. 2020. "Gambling with leadership succession in Brazilian football: head coach turnovers and team performance." Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal 11, no. 3: 245-264.

Research article
Published: 24 November 2020 in Journal of Sports Economics
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This study examines how running performance (intensive runs, total distance covered) of football teams in previous games impacts betting markets as it relates to expected win probability. Theoretically, bookmakers could interpret team’s running performance as effort or fatigue, with sports science studies suggesting that distance covered reflects effort and intensive runs signal fatigue. Using data from the 2011/12-2018/19 seasons of the German Bundesliga, beta regression models reveal that bookmakers interpret team’s running performance in previous games contrary to physiological explanations in sports sciences. Tests of market efficiency incorporating these findings do not find a profitable betting strategy for bettors.

ACS Style

Brian P. Soebbing; Pamela Wicker; Daniel Weimar; Johannes Orlowski. How do Bookmakers Interpret Running Performance of Teams in Previous Games? Evidence From the Football Bundesliga. Journal of Sports Economics 2020, 22, 231 -250.

AMA Style

Brian P. Soebbing, Pamela Wicker, Daniel Weimar, Johannes Orlowski. How do Bookmakers Interpret Running Performance of Teams in Previous Games? Evidence From the Football Bundesliga. Journal of Sports Economics. 2020; 22 (3):231-250.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Brian P. Soebbing; Pamela Wicker; Daniel Weimar; Johannes Orlowski. 2020. "How do Bookmakers Interpret Running Performance of Teams in Previous Games? Evidence From the Football Bundesliga." Journal of Sports Economics 22, no. 3: 231-250.

Journal article
Published: 19 November 2020 in Sustainability
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This study examines the value of professional winter sports to the Austrian resident population in the context of three major sporting events (the 2017 World Championships in Alpine Skiing, the 2018 Winter Olympics, and the 2019 World Championships in Nordic Skiing). In nationwide population surveys (n = 2289), the contingent valuation method was employed, and the respondents were presented with two scenarios asking for their willingness-to-pay for live broadcasts and long-term athlete development. The aggregate willingness-to-pay amounted to €42 million (for live broadcasts) and about €800 million (for athlete development). However, only about 20% of the residents expressed a positive willingness-to-pay. The respondents’ willingness-to-pay is not only determined by well-studied factors like consumption capital, intangible factors, and socio-demographics, but also by life satisfaction. The willingness-to-pay for live broadcasts is comparably higher for alpine skiing, while the willingness-to-pay for athlete development is higher for Olympic winter sports athletes. The findings have implications for sport policy and sport finance, highlighting the challenge of turning public sport consumption into a willingness to contribute financially to sustainable athlete development.

ACS Style

Pamela Wicker; Bernd Frick. Sustainable Financing of Elite Athlete Development: An Empirical Analysis of Winter Sports in Austria. Sustainability 2020, 12, 9664 .

AMA Style

Pamela Wicker, Bernd Frick. Sustainable Financing of Elite Athlete Development: An Empirical Analysis of Winter Sports in Austria. Sustainability. 2020; 12 (22):9664.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Pamela Wicker; Bernd Frick. 2020. "Sustainable Financing of Elite Athlete Development: An Empirical Analysis of Winter Sports in Austria." Sustainability 12, no. 22: 9664.

Journal article
Published: 29 September 2020 in Sport Management Review
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This study examines the nature and incidences of occupational fraud in community sport organisations (CSOs) as reported in media coverage from Australia, Canada, Germany, and the United States from 2008−2018. Using the fraud diamond framework, the main indicators for fraud occurring in CSO’s included: incentive (i.e., personal financial struggles, supporting lavish lifestyles, addictions, and mental health issues); opportunity (i.e., access to organisational accounts, insufficient financial control mechanisms, vacancy in key positions, singular role responsibilities, and perceived trustworthiness of club leaders), rationalisation (i.e., denial of responsibility, good intentions, and self-justification), and capability (i.e., educated professionals and learned advantage). The findings showed that individuals who committed various forms of occupational fraud typically held the trusted volunteer positions of treasurer or president. The research offers a new understanding of the global nature of fraud and its risk indicators within the CSO context, and begins to identify how CSOs might be susceptible to fraud, thereby articulating a future research agenda to explore fraud vulnerability in CSOs. In practice, this study offers important insights for anti-fraud strategies and training in the community sport sector.

ACS Style

Lisa A. Kihl; Katie E. Misener; Graham Cuskelly; Pamela Wicker. Tip of the iceberg? An international investigation of fraud in community sport. Sport Management Review 2020, 1 .

AMA Style

Lisa A. Kihl, Katie E. Misener, Graham Cuskelly, Pamela Wicker. Tip of the iceberg? An international investigation of fraud in community sport. Sport Management Review. 2020; ():1.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Lisa A. Kihl; Katie E. Misener; Graham Cuskelly; Pamela Wicker. 2020. "Tip of the iceberg? An international investigation of fraud in community sport." Sport Management Review , no. : 1.

Journal article
Published: 25 September 2020 in Managing Sport and Leisure
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ACS Style

Pamela Wicker; Shannon Kerwin. Women representation in the boardroom of Canadian sport governing bodies: structural and financial characteristics of three organizational clusters. Managing Sport and Leisure 2020, 1 -14.

AMA Style

Pamela Wicker, Shannon Kerwin. Women representation in the boardroom of Canadian sport governing bodies: structural and financial characteristics of three organizational clusters. Managing Sport and Leisure. 2020; ():1-14.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Pamela Wicker; Shannon Kerwin. 2020. "Women representation in the boardroom of Canadian sport governing bodies: structural and financial characteristics of three organizational clusters." Managing Sport and Leisure , no. : 1-14.

Research article
Published: 08 September 2020 in Leisure Sciences
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This study examines the economic impact (measured by visitor spending) and environmental impact (measured by carbon footprint) of leisure trips to the natural environment. It also investigates the tradeoff between them. This research uses survey data from England comprising information about randomly selected leisure trips to the natural environment (n = 15,535; 2012-2016). On average, each trip involves visitor spending of GBP 8.57 and a carbon footprint of 4.15 kg of carbon dioxide-equivalent emissions. The results of seemingly unrelated regression analysis and bivariate probit analysis show that trips involving eating, water activities, visiting attractions and the beach yield more expenditure, but also a higher carbon footprint. On the contrary, trips involving walking, land activities, and playing with children generate a lower carbon footprint, but also less visitor spending. These results and the significant correlation of residuals suggests that economic impact occurs at the expense of the natural environment.

ACS Style

Pamela Wicker; Paul Downward; Simona Rasciute. Leisure Trips to the Natural Environment: Examining the Tradeoff between Economic and Environmental Impact. Leisure Sciences 2020, 1 -19.

AMA Style

Pamela Wicker, Paul Downward, Simona Rasciute. Leisure Trips to the Natural Environment: Examining the Tradeoff between Economic and Environmental Impact. Leisure Sciences. 2020; ():1-19.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Pamela Wicker; Paul Downward; Simona Rasciute. 2020. "Leisure Trips to the Natural Environment: Examining the Tradeoff between Economic and Environmental Impact." Leisure Sciences , no. : 1-19.

Journal article
Published: 28 August 2020 in International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
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Air and water pollution have detrimental effects on health, while physical activity opportunities have a positive relationship. The purpose of this study was to explore whether physical activity opportunities moderate the relationships among air and water pollution, and measures of health. Aggregate data were collected at the county level in the United States (n = 3104). Variables included the mean daily density of fine particle matter (air pollution), reported cases of health-related drinking water violations (water pollution), subjective ratings of poor or fair health (overall health), the number of physically and mentally unhealthy (physical and mental health, respectively), and the percentage of people living in close proximity to a park or recreation facility (access to physical activity). Air and water pollution have a significant positive effect on all measures of residents’ poor health, while physical activity opportunities only have a negative effect on overall health and physical health. Access to physical activity only moderates the relationship between air pollution and all health outcomes. Since physical activity behavior can be more rapidly changed than some causes of pollution, providing the resident population with better access to physical activity can represent an effective tool in environmental health policy.

ACS Style

George B. Cunningham; Pamela Wicker; Brian P. McCullough. Pollution, Health, and the Moderating Role of Physical Activity Opportunities. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2020, 17, 6272 .

AMA Style

George B. Cunningham, Pamela Wicker, Brian P. McCullough. Pollution, Health, and the Moderating Role of Physical Activity Opportunities. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17 (17):6272.

Chicago/Turabian Style

George B. Cunningham; Pamela Wicker; Brian P. McCullough. 2020. "Pollution, Health, and the Moderating Role of Physical Activity Opportunities." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 17: 6272.

Journal article
Published: 06 July 2020 in Tourism Management Perspectives
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This study examines the effect of training satisfaction and weather on the intention to revisit a sport event. It considers attribute non-attendance, i.e. respondents ignoring choice attributes in surveys. Online surveys were conducted at four sport events in the United States in 2017 and 2018. Respondents answered a series of hypothetical scenarios for return visitation that randomly assigned different travel costs per mile, travel distances, weather forecasts, and respondents' training satisfaction. Logit models estimated with and without attribute non-attendance reveal the extent to which respondents did not pay attention to specific trip attributes when answering the survey. These results indicate that attribute non-attendance is an issue in each data set. Partial consideration of attribute non-attendance yields statistically significant willingness-to-pay estimates for event attributes, while full consideration yields larger willingness-to-pay estimates. This study's contribution lies in the examination of previously neglected factors (training satisfaction, weather) and the consideration of attribute non-attendance.

ACS Style

John C. Whitehead; Pamela Wicker. The effects of training satisfaction and weather on revisiting sport events and their monetary value: The role of attribute non-attendance. Tourism Management Perspectives 2020, 35, 100713 .

AMA Style

John C. Whitehead, Pamela Wicker. The effects of training satisfaction and weather on revisiting sport events and their monetary value: The role of attribute non-attendance. Tourism Management Perspectives. 2020; 35 ():100713.

Chicago/Turabian Style

John C. Whitehead; Pamela Wicker. 2020. "The effects of training satisfaction and weather on revisiting sport events and their monetary value: The role of attribute non-attendance." Tourism Management Perspectives 35, no. : 100713.

Articles
Published: 02 July 2020 in European Sport Management Quarterly
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Research question: This study examines the effect of board gender diversity and a critical mass of women on the board on organizational problems of non-profit sport clubs. It relies on theories from social categorization and information/decision-making perspectives and on critical mass theory. Research methods: Four waves of data from a German sport club panel (2009–2015; n = 6504) are used which allow analyzing causal effects with lagged variables. Gender diversity was measured with the share of women on the board, the Blau index, and the number of women on the board. The perceived severity of human resource, financial, facility, and development problems represent the dependent variables. Results and findings: The results of regression analyses show that board gender diversity significantly reduces human resource and financial problems. Human resource problems are even smallest in clubs with an overbalanced board (≥60% women), while facility problems are perceived as bigger in such clubs. The results provided evidence for critical masses of one or at least three women for reducing human resource problems and of at least four women for perceiving bigger facility problems. Development problems are not impacted by board gender diversity or critical masses. Implications: The findings for human resource and financial problems support the information/decision-making perspective, suggesting that board gender diversity benefits the organization because of diversity in resource access, human and social capital, and improved quality of decision-making. Thus, increasing gender diversity of the board can be a way to reduce problems in these areas.

ACS Style

Pamela Wicker; Svenja Feiler; Christoph Breuer. Board gender diversity, critical masses, and organizational problems of non-profit sport clubs. European Sport Management Quarterly 2020, 1 -21.

AMA Style

Pamela Wicker, Svenja Feiler, Christoph Breuer. Board gender diversity, critical masses, and organizational problems of non-profit sport clubs. European Sport Management Quarterly. 2020; ():1-21.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Pamela Wicker; Svenja Feiler; Christoph Breuer. 2020. "Board gender diversity, critical masses, and organizational problems of non-profit sport clubs." European Sport Management Quarterly , no. : 1-21.

Journal article
Published: 01 July 2020 in Journal of Sport Management
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Given the increasing importance of athlete well-being in the sport policy debate, this study investigated the effects of socioeconomic factors on elite athletes’ well-being in less commercialized sports and provides comparisons with residents of similar age (18–30 years). This study used survey data from athletes who are supported by the German Sports Aid Foundation (n = 709) and from the German Socio-Economic Panel, containing comparable variables for residents (n = 2,455). Subjective well-being was measured with life satisfaction as a whole and satisfaction with important domains in life, including health, income, leisure time, and family life. The athletes scored lower on all well-being measures compared with young residents. The regression analyses revealed significant differences between athletes and young residents with regard to the effects of age, income, education, and sport hours on different well-being dimensions, suggesting that more needs to be done that the athletes’ investments into sport and education yield well-being benefits.

ACS Style

Pamela Wicker; Sören Dallmeyer; Christoph Breuer. Elite Athlete Well-Being: The Role of Socioeconomic Factors and Comparisons With the Resident Population. Journal of Sport Management 2020, 34, 341 -353.

AMA Style

Pamela Wicker, Sören Dallmeyer, Christoph Breuer. Elite Athlete Well-Being: The Role of Socioeconomic Factors and Comparisons With the Resident Population. Journal of Sport Management. 2020; 34 (4):341-353.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Pamela Wicker; Sören Dallmeyer; Christoph Breuer. 2020. "Elite Athlete Well-Being: The Role of Socioeconomic Factors and Comparisons With the Resident Population." Journal of Sport Management 34, no. 4: 341-353.

Journal article
Published: 01 July 2020 in Journal of Sport Management
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This study examines the causal effect of different voluntary roles in sport on individuals’ subjective well-being. Theoretically, volunteering can affect well-being through various mechanisms, including enjoyment, new contacts, skill development, exercising altruism, and relational goods. The empirical analysis uses data from 28 European countries (n = 52,957). Subjective well-being is measured with self-reported life satisfaction. The number of administrative roles (e.g., board or committee member, administrative tasks), sport-related roles (e.g., coach, instructor, referee), and operational roles (e.g., organize a sport event, provide transport) capture volunteering. The results of linear regression models support the positive relationship between volunteering and subjective well-being as evident in existing research. However, instrumental variable estimates reveal that only the number of operational roles has a significant positive effect on well-being, whereas the effects of administrative and sport-related roles are jointly significantly negative. The findings of this study have implications for sport organizations and policy makers.

ACS Style

Pamela Wicker; Paul Downward. The Causal Effect of Voluntary Roles in Sport on Subjective Well-Being in European Countries. Journal of Sport Management 2020, 34, 303 -315.

AMA Style

Pamela Wicker, Paul Downward. The Causal Effect of Voluntary Roles in Sport on Subjective Well-Being in European Countries. Journal of Sport Management. 2020; 34 (4):303-315.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Pamela Wicker; Paul Downward. 2020. "The Causal Effect of Voluntary Roles in Sport on Subjective Well-Being in European Countries." Journal of Sport Management 34, no. 4: 303-315.