Crop management should be determined to reintroduce ancient wheat. This study aimed to determine: i. the response of the yield of ancient wheat on sowing density; ii. the impact of sowing density on plant health, weed infestation and pest occurrence. Field experiments were carried out in Poland, on three organic farms. The factors were: (1) wheat species: Persian wheat (Triticum persicum Vav.) and Indian dwarf wheat (T. sphaerococcum Perc.), (2) sowing density (400, 500, and 600 grains m⁻²). Increasing the sowing density of T. sphaerococcum from 400 to 600 grains m⁻² increases the grain yield and reduces the pest pressure (Oulema spp. and Aphididae). Sowing densities did not affect the severity of powdery mildew at stem elongation as well as root rot and eyespot at the development of fruit. At the highest sowing density, the leaf area with tan spot symptoms was the highest. The eyespot symptoms occurred more frequently and the damaged plant surface caused by Oulema spp. was larger on T. sphaerococcum. Persian wheat turned out to be more susceptible to weed infestation. Indian dwarf wheat and Persian wheat are useful for organic farming, and the sowing density should be 500 or 600 grains m⁻² and 400 grains m⁻², respectively.

The effect of the time of catch crop (field pea) incorporation [catch crop incorporated in the autumn (A) or in the spring (B) versus plots without a catch crop (C)] on the soil enzymes related to N transformation (urease – UR, protease – PRO, nitrate reductase – NR, arginine ammonification rate – AAR), the total N and mineral N as well as microbial biomass N (MBN) contents were investigated in a 3-year experiment. The catch crop was sown at the beginning of August and plowed in the autumn in 2008, 2009 and 2010 or left as mulch during the winter. Soil samples for microbial activity were taken from spring barley plots that were grown in 2009, 2010 and 2011 before sowing (March), during the tillering phase (May), shooting (June) and after the harvesting of spring barley (August). The use of catch crop significantly increased the soil mineral and MBN contents as well as the activities of PRO and NR as compared to the control soil. The spring incorporation of the field pea significantly increased the MBN content in contrast to the autumn application, while the activity of N-cycle enzymes were clearly unaffected (UR and AAR) regardless of the time of the incorporation of field pea or else the results were inconsistent (PRO and NR). When the catch crop was incorporated in the spring, a significantly higher content of mineral N as compared to autumn incorporation was noted on only two of the four sampling dates. The enzymatic activity (PRO and AAR) was about 1.3-2.8 times higher in May and June as compared with March and August. Both spring or autumn incorporation of catch crop can be a useful management practice to increase the soil mineral N content and enhance the soil biological activity.

Soil degradation and climate change are the most destructive (human- and/or naturally induced) processes, making agricultural production more challenging than ever before. Traditional tillage methods, characterized by intensive mechanical soil disturbance (dominantly using a plow), have come under question for their role in exacerbating soil erosion, depleting organic matter, and contributing to the decline in soil biodiversity and other soil devastating processes. These practices, while effective in the short term for crop production, undermine the sustainability of agricultural systems, posing a threat to food security and environmental stability. This review examines the adoption and implementation of Conservation Soil Tillage (CST) across six European countries: Croatia, Serbia, Hungary, Slovakia, Czech Republic, and Poland. The main objective is to analyze the historical development, current status, and future prospects of CST in these countries, highlighting the challenges and opportunities in transitioning from conventional tillage methods. Conservation Soil Tillage (CST) emerges as a promising alternative platform to still dominant conventional plowing tillage approach. By reducing the intensity and frequency of tillage, CST practices aim to maintain adequate soil cover, minimize erosion, and encourage biological activity and organic matter accumulation, thus, ensuring soil productivity and resilience against additional degradation and climate variation. Efforts made by scientists and the government to go over it sometimes are not sufficient. Farmers’ expectations of benefits are the final keystone for the integration of CST as a dominant sustainable practice. Analyses from six European countries pointed to a high level of diversity in readiness and willingness to accept, as well as different levels of knowledge about the adoption of CST. Our study suggested that the adoption of CST is increasing, and it represents a key strategy for soil degradation prevention and climate change mitigation.

Catch crops cultivated for green manure play an important role in improving soil quality by maintaining soil organic matter content and returning nutrients to the soil. The effects of field pea used as the catch crop, both incorporated in autumn (AI) or mulched (SI) vs a control on soil phosphatase activity, available phosphorus (P_AVAIL) and microbial biomass phosphorus (MBP) content were studied during 3 years in a field, one-factor experiment in a randomized block design with four replications. Soil samples were taken four times a year from the spring barley plots grown between 2009 and 2011. The application of catch crop increased almost twice the soil available P (only in 2009), while the MBP content increased at about 25-35% in the entire study period. The catch crop management enhanced the activities of phosphatases at about 10-16% as compared to the control. The studied properties were not significantly affected by the catch crop management except for the P_AVAIL determined in 2009, which was about 25% higher after being mulched than after the autumn incorporation of field pea. The application of a field pea as green manure can be a useful practice to increase the MBP content and enhance the P-related enzymatic activity.

Nutrient deficiencies are a major cause of yield loss under abiotic stress conditions, so proper nutrient management can reduce the negative effects of stress to some extent. Nutrients can alleviate stress by activating resistance genes, enhancing antioxidant enzyme activity, creating osmoprotectants in cells, reducing reactive oxygen species (ROS) activity, increasing cell membrane stability, synthesizing proteins associated with stress tolerance, and increasing chlorophyll content in leaves. The current review highlights changes in soybean metabolic activity caused by drought stress and changes in vital functions caused by the deficiency of primary (N, K, P) and secondary macronutrients (Ca, Mg, S). The role of macronutrients in reducing the adverse effects of water deficit stress is highlighted. Under stressed conditions, appropriate nutrient management options can be implemented to minimize the effects of drought and ensure good yields. Balanced nutrient fertilization helps activate various plant mechanisms to mitigate the effects of abiotic stresses and improve soybean drought resistance/tolerance. Nutrient management is therefore a viable technique for reducing environmental stress and increasing crop productivity.