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Dr. Tine Seljak
Laboratory for Internal Combustion Engines and Electromobility, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva cesta 6, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia

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0 Burners
0 Gas Turbines
0 Incineration
0 Internal Combustion Engines

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Gas Turbines
Waste-derived fuels
Fuel processing
Highly oxygenated fuels

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Journal article
Published: 21 June 2021 in Energies
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Power generation units based on the bio-syngas system face two main challenges due to (i) the possible temporary shortage of primary sources and (ii) the engine power derating associated with the use of low-energy density fuels in combustion engines. In both cases, an external input fuel is provided. Hence, complementing syngas with traditional fuels, like natural gas, becomes a necessity. In this work, an experimental methodology is proposed, aiming at the quantification of the impact of the use of both natural gas and syngas in spark ignition (SI) engines on performance and emissions. The main research questions focus on investigating brake thermal efficiency (BTE), power derating, and pollutant emission (NOx, CO, THC, CO2) formation, offering quantitative findings that present the basis for engine optimization procedures. Experimental measurements were performed on a Toyota 4Y-E engine (a 4-cylinders, 4-stroke spark ignition engine) at partial load (10 kW) under different syngas energy shares (SES) and at four different spark ignition timings (10°, 25°, 35° and 45° BTDC). Results reveal that the impact of the different fuel mixtures on BTE is negligible if compared to the influence of spark advance variation on BTE. On the other hand, power derating has proven to be a limiting factor and becomes more prominent with increasing SES. An increasing SES also resulted in an increase of CO and CO2 emissions, while NOx and THC emissions decreased with increasing SES.

ACS Style

Carlo Caligiuri; Urban Žvar Baškovič; Massimiliano Renzi; Tine Seljak; Samuel Rodman Oprešnik; Marco Baratieri; Tomaž Katrašnik. Complementing Syngas with Natural Gas in Spark Ignition Engines for Power Production: Effects on Emissions and Combustion. Energies 2021, 14, 3688 .

AMA Style

Carlo Caligiuri, Urban Žvar Baškovič, Massimiliano Renzi, Tine Seljak, Samuel Rodman Oprešnik, Marco Baratieri, Tomaž Katrašnik. Complementing Syngas with Natural Gas in Spark Ignition Engines for Power Production: Effects on Emissions and Combustion. Energies. 2021; 14 (12):3688.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Carlo Caligiuri; Urban Žvar Baškovič; Massimiliano Renzi; Tine Seljak; Samuel Rodman Oprešnik; Marco Baratieri; Tomaž Katrašnik. 2021. "Complementing Syngas with Natural Gas in Spark Ignition Engines for Power Production: Effects on Emissions and Combustion." Energies 14, no. 12: 3688.

Journal article
Published: 31 March 2021 in Energy Conversion and Management
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Commonly applied 3D CFD models lack suitable combustion description of fuels with complex composition, such as encountered in wastewater sludge specific applications. This significantly influences their prediction capability, in particular when used in small, confined combustion volumes. To tackle this challenge, it is necessary to introduce detailed chemical kinetic models for specifically tailored fuel surrogates, which ensure physically accurate description of local thermodynamic conditions and heat release rates. However, necessity to increase the level of detail of models needs to be balanced by their computational expenses to preserve their applicability when solving real engineering problems. With an aim to fill this gap, the present study significantly extends the existing surrogate model methods for applications in small-scale systems to include also reduced combustion kinetic mechanisms. The innovative extension applies Simulation Error Minimization Connectivity Method and involves tailoring of kinetic mechanisms to variable thermodynamic conditions and variable surrogate compositions, specific to sewage sludge combustion. Suitability of the proposed approach is confirmed with the 3-D CFD simulations maintaining similar level of accuracy within the design space of reduced mechanisms as well as in off-design conditions, while maintaining sufficient flexibility to adapt to different types and compositions of the sludge. Thereby, reduction of the in-model applied detailed ethanol and propene mechanisms from 47 and 71 species down to 33 and 34 species, respectively, was demonstrated together with linearly dependent decrease in computational time. The proposed model extension and resulting surrogate combustion model thus for the first time offer an efficient tool for affordable and accurate virtual design of small-scale combustion systems using fuels with complex chemical composition.

ACS Style

A. Žnidarčič; T. Katrašnik; I.G. Zsély; T. Nagy; T. Seljak. Sewage sludge combustion model with reduced chemical kinetics mechanisms. Energy Conversion and Management 2021, 236, 114073 .

AMA Style

A. Žnidarčič, T. Katrašnik, I.G. Zsély, T. Nagy, T. Seljak. Sewage sludge combustion model with reduced chemical kinetics mechanisms. Energy Conversion and Management. 2021; 236 ():114073.

Chicago/Turabian Style

A. Žnidarčič; T. Katrašnik; I.G. Zsély; T. Nagy; T. Seljak. 2021. "Sewage sludge combustion model with reduced chemical kinetics mechanisms." Energy Conversion and Management 236, no. : 114073.

Original research article
Published: 10 September 2020 in Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering
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The paper presents a first comparative analysis of emission formation phenomena of three different bioliquids, derived from low-cost waste streams while utilizing the same gas turbine-based experimental setup. A consistent and unbiased comparison is ensured by the application of the same experimental test rig featuring only those minor fuel-based adaptations, which are required to ensure the most favorable operation of each of the analyzed fuels. This provides the direct comparative data between combustion performance of liquefied wood, obtained through solvolysis process, glycerol, and waste liquor from nanocellulose production which were previously tested in various combustion systems, hence making a direct evaluation of fuel's suitability difficult. The study focuses on the analysis of all key thermodynamic parameters and significant emission species covering CO, NOx, HC particulate matter, and soot as well as identification of underlying phenomena for observed emission trends. These indicate that for NOx emissions, a good correlation exists to the stoichiometric ratio of the fuels, where a low stoichiometric ratio results in lower NOx emissions, provided that oxygen content is the main diluent and fuel-bound nitrogen is low. As all tested fuels feature oxygen content above 43%, this enables a large improvement in NOx-CO trade off, as CO emissions are reduced with higher peak combustion temperatures while minimally increasing NOx emissions. Similar observations are made for particulate matter–NOx trade off; however, the ash content significantly impacts the particulate matter emission, hence reducing the potential for clean combustion of waste liquor. In the case of glycerol with no ash content, soot emissions are minimal and for an order of magnitude lower than for benchmark diesel fuel, as there are numerous phenomena effectively reducing their formation and increasing their oxidation. The presented research confirms that utilization of bio-intermediates and waste-derived fuels in appropriate combustion setups can, beside a low CO2 footprint, feature also very low emissions of other pollutant species, providing that fuels feature high oxygen content, low ash content, and low nitrogen content. With such approach, it is possible to achieve clean combustion that is fully in line with circular economy guidelines.

ACS Style

Žiga Rosec; Véronique Dias; Francesco Contino; Tomaž Katrašnik; Tine Seljak. Comparative Analysis of Bio-Intermediates and Waste-Derived Fuels in Experimental Gas Turbine. Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering 2020, 6, 1 .

AMA Style

Žiga Rosec, Véronique Dias, Francesco Contino, Tomaž Katrašnik, Tine Seljak. Comparative Analysis of Bio-Intermediates and Waste-Derived Fuels in Experimental Gas Turbine. Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering. 2020; 6 ():1.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Žiga Rosec; Véronique Dias; Francesco Contino; Tomaž Katrašnik; Tine Seljak. 2020. "Comparative Analysis of Bio-Intermediates and Waste-Derived Fuels in Experimental Gas Turbine." Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering 6, no. : 1.

Review article
Published: 13 August 2020 in Energy Conversion and Management
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The increase in human consumption of plant and animal oils has led to the rise in waste cooking oil (WCO) production. Instead of disposing the used cooking oil as waste, recent technological advance has enabled the use of WCO as a sustainable feedstock for biofuels production, thereby maximising the value of biowastes via energy recovery while concomitantly solving the disposal issue. The current regulatory frameworks for WCO collection and recycling practices imposed by major WCO producing countries are reviewed, followed by the overview of the progress in biodiesel conversion techniques, along with novel methods to improve the feasibility for upscaling. The factors which influence the efficiency of the reactions such as properties of feedstock, heterogenous catalytic processes, cost effectiveness and selectivity of reaction product are discussed. Ultrasonic-assisted transesterification is found to be the least energy intensive method for producing biodiesel. The production of bio-jet fuels from WCO, while scarce, provide diversity in waste utilisation if problems such as carbon chain length, requirements of bio-jet fuel properties, extreme reaction conditions and effectiveness of selected catalyst-support system can be solved. Technoeconomic studies revealed that WCO biofuels is financially viable with benefit of mitigating carbon emissions, provided that the price gap between the produced fuel and commercial fuels, sufficient supply of WCO and variation in the oil properties are addressed. This review shows that WCO is a biowaste with high potential for advanced transportation fuel production for ground and aviation industries. The advancement in fuel production technology and relevant policies would accelerate the application of sustainable WCO biofuels.

ACS Style

Brandon Han Hoe Goh; Cheng Tung Chong; Yuqi Ge; Hwai Chyuan Ong; Jo-Han Ng; Bo Tian; Veeramuthu Ashokkumar; Steven Lim; Tine Seljak; Viktor Józsa. Progress in utilisation of waste cooking oil for sustainable biodiesel and biojet fuel production. Energy Conversion and Management 2020, 223, 113296 .

AMA Style

Brandon Han Hoe Goh, Cheng Tung Chong, Yuqi Ge, Hwai Chyuan Ong, Jo-Han Ng, Bo Tian, Veeramuthu Ashokkumar, Steven Lim, Tine Seljak, Viktor Józsa. Progress in utilisation of waste cooking oil for sustainable biodiesel and biojet fuel production. Energy Conversion and Management. 2020; 223 ():113296.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Brandon Han Hoe Goh; Cheng Tung Chong; Yuqi Ge; Hwai Chyuan Ong; Jo-Han Ng; Bo Tian; Veeramuthu Ashokkumar; Steven Lim; Tine Seljak; Viktor Józsa. 2020. "Progress in utilisation of waste cooking oil for sustainable biodiesel and biojet fuel production." Energy Conversion and Management 223, no. : 113296.

Journal article
Published: 11 June 2020 in Fuel
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To achieve a near zero emission footprint of combustion in power generation, introduction of fuels with low global warming potential, namely low-carbon or carbon neutral fuels and simultaneous reduction of harmful emissions through implementation of advanced combustion concepts is necessary. The study addresses this challenge experimentally by proposing a new approach which combines the benefits of highly oxygenated waste derived fuels, here represented by glycerol, and an introduction of external exhaust gasses recirculation (EGR) aimed for further reduction of NOx emissions. Thus, the recognized role of the high oxygen content in glycerol can positively influence the well-known penalties of EGR, which are commonly perceivable through elevated CO and soot emissions. The measurements were performed with an experimental gas turbine equipped with an exhaust heat regeneration system and feedback loop for 8% and 13% EGR content in compressor intake air. The proposed system layout represents a technically viable and cost-efficient approach for upgrading existent gas turbine setups with a goal to improve their emission footprint. Results confirm that with 8% and 13% EGR rate, NOx, CO and soot can be reduced simultaneously, thus improving the CO- NOx and soot- NOx trade off approximately 2-fold for each species. Additionally, underlying phenomena responsible for observed improvements while increasing EGR rate are identified as an increased soot reactivity, a competing effect of EGR related dilution and an increased primary air temperature together with spray related parameters linked to low stoichiometric ratio of glycerol.

ACS Style

Žiga Rosec; Tomaž Katrašnik; Urban Žvar Baškovič; Tine Seljak. Exhaust gas recirculation with highly oxygenated fuels in gas turbines. Fuel 2020, 278, 118285 .

AMA Style

Žiga Rosec, Tomaž Katrašnik, Urban Žvar Baškovič, Tine Seljak. Exhaust gas recirculation with highly oxygenated fuels in gas turbines. Fuel. 2020; 278 ():118285.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Žiga Rosec; Tomaž Katrašnik; Urban Žvar Baškovič; Tine Seljak. 2020. "Exhaust gas recirculation with highly oxygenated fuels in gas turbines." Fuel 278, no. : 118285.

Journal article
Published: 20 May 2019 in Applied Energy
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The use of new fuels and operating strategies for gas turbine technologies plays a relevant component for carbon emissions reduction and the use of sustainable energy sources. Among non-carbon fuels, hydrogen-based fuels have been proposed as one of the main strategies for decarbonisation of the power sector. Ammonia is a good representative of these fuels as it is carbon-free and the second largest chemical commodity, having been produced worldwide for more than a century from various energy resources, i.e. fossil fuels, biomass or other renewable sources. However, the use of ammonia as a fuel in industrial gas turbines brings some practical challenges directly linked to the final efficiency of these systems, especially when the latter are compared to current Dry Low Nitrogen Oxides technologies. Thus, this work covers a series of analytical, numerical and experimental studies performed to determine the efficiency of using ammonia/hydrogen blends in combination with humidified methodologies to deliver competitive systems for the use of ammonia-hydrogen power generation. The study was conducted using CHEMKIN-PRO reaction networks employing novel reaction chemical kinetics, in combination with bespoke analytical codes to determine efficiencies of systems previously calibrated experimentally. Finally, experimental trials using steam injection were carried out to determine potential of these blends. The novel results demonstrate that the use of humidified ammonia-hydrogen injection provides similar efficiencies to both Dry Low Nitrogen Oxides and humidified methane-based technologies ∼30%, with flames that are stable and low polluting under swirling conditions, thus opening the opportunity for further progression on the topic.

ACS Style

M. Guteša Božo; Mo. Vigueras-Zuniga; M. Buffi; T. Seljak; A. Valera-Medina. Fuel rich ammonia-hydrogen injection for humidified gas turbines. Applied Energy 2019, 251, 113334 .

AMA Style

M. Guteša Božo, Mo. Vigueras-Zuniga, M. Buffi, T. Seljak, A. Valera-Medina. Fuel rich ammonia-hydrogen injection for humidified gas turbines. Applied Energy. 2019; 251 ():113334.

Chicago/Turabian Style

M. Guteša Božo; Mo. Vigueras-Zuniga; M. Buffi; T. Seljak; A. Valera-Medina. 2019. "Fuel rich ammonia-hydrogen injection for humidified gas turbines." Applied Energy 251, no. : 113334.

Journal article
Published: 17 December 2018 in Energy
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The presented paper focuses on the combustion analysis of a highly oxygenated, viscous and economically viable fuel in an internal combustion micro gas turbine. Results suggest that environmental benefits in terms of NOx emissions and PM emissions are significant as concentrations of both species are reduced. Based on the analysis presented in the study, altered local air-fuel ratio suppresses NOx formation and PM formation resulting in 10-fold lower PM emission than same experimental apparatus with diesel fuel. The study further analyses and identifies three key mechanisms that are responsible for this reduction: altered oxygen profile during mixture preparation, prevention of soot precursors formation and promotion of soot oxidation reactions. The influence of tested fuel is also perceivable through higher CO and THC emissions. Parametric analysis within the selected experimental space suggests that operational parameters of the micro gas turbine can be adjusted to reduce concentrations of these two species without negatively affecting other pollutants. Significant benefits of the fuel in terms of environmental impact indicate that further investigation and development of this approach might provide a new alternative energy source for stationary use as well as for mobility in sectors where heavy duty gas turbines are used as prime movers.

ACS Style

T. Seljak; T. Katrašnik. Emission reduction through highly oxygenated viscous biofuels: Use of glycerol in a micro gas turbine. Energy 2018, 169, 1000 -1011.

AMA Style

T. Seljak, T. Katrašnik. Emission reduction through highly oxygenated viscous biofuels: Use of glycerol in a micro gas turbine. Energy. 2018; 169 ():1000-1011.

Chicago/Turabian Style

T. Seljak; T. Katrašnik. 2018. "Emission reduction through highly oxygenated viscous biofuels: Use of glycerol in a micro gas turbine." Energy 169, no. : 1000-1011.

Journal article
Published: 05 October 2018 in Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power
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Increased public concerns and stricter regulatory frameworks promote the role of bioliquids (liquid fuel for energy purposes other than for transport, including electricity and heating and cooling, produced from biomass). This is a driving force for development and employment of micro-gas turbines (MGTs) due to their ability to combust bioliquids with less favorable properties in a decentralized manner. Gas turbines are characterized by relatively high combustion efficiency at relatively low concentrations of harmful emissions, relatively high effective efficiency and durability when utilizing a common portfolio of gas turbine approved fuels. It is thus desired to preserve these advantages of gas turbines also while burning bioliquids and further relying on their scalability that is crucial to efficient support of decentralized energy production at small scales. To support these objectives, MGT technology needs to allow for utilization of bioliquids with much wider spectrum of physical and chemical properties compared to common commercially available MGTs in a single MGT-based plant. In this view, the present study is providing the first thorough overview of challenges and solutions encountered by researchers across the wide area of bioliquids in MGTs.

ACS Style

Tine Seljak; Klemen Pavalec; Marco Buffi; Agustin Valera-Medina; David Chiaramonti; Tomaž Katrašnik. Challenges and Solutions for Utilization of Bioliquids in Microturbines. Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 2018, 141, 1 .

AMA Style

Tine Seljak, Klemen Pavalec, Marco Buffi, Agustin Valera-Medina, David Chiaramonti, Tomaž Katrašnik. Challenges and Solutions for Utilization of Bioliquids in Microturbines. Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power. 2018; 141 (3):1.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Tine Seljak; Klemen Pavalec; Marco Buffi; Agustin Valera-Medina; David Chiaramonti; Tomaž Katrašnik. 2018. "Challenges and Solutions for Utilization of Bioliquids in Microturbines." Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 141, no. 3: 1.

Journal article
Published: 18 August 2018 in Energies
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Air quality in urban areas is strongly influenced by exhaust emitted by the public transport fleet. The aim of this study was to analyze benefits in the fuel consumption, fuel costs and exhaust emissions when replacing baseline diesel fueled EURO III city buses by the compressed natural gas (CNG)-fueled EURO V buses and by hydraulic series hybrid diesel-fueled EURO V buses. Real-world measurements were performed on the regular bus route to access realistic energy consumption and exhaust emissions. Instantaneous gaseous emission (CO2, CO, NOx and THC) were measured together with the instantaneous PM10 mass emission. Innovativeness of the presented approach thus arises from the systematic comparison of different powertrain technologies under real-world drive cycles and measuring time traces of not only gaseous but also of PM10 mass emissions. Furthermore, lumped cycle averaged emissions are interpreted and explained by typical powertrain performance parameters and exhaust emission time traces. Cumulative results indicate that application of the CNG fueled buses does not necessary reduce CO2 emissions compared to diesel-fueled buses whereas reduction in fuel costs is evident. Additionally, it is shown that hybrid operation of the hydraulic series hybrid diesel-fueled bus resulted in higher fuel consumption due to poorly optimized hybrid topology and control strategy. Furthermore, analyses of the time traces point out inadequate lambda control of CNG-fueled buses and nucleation mode-based particle number emissions during deceleration.

ACS Style

Samuel Rodman Oprešnik; Tine Seljak; Rok Vihar; Marko Gerbec; Tomaž Katrašnik. Real-World Fuel Consumption, Fuel Cost and Exhaust Emissions of Different Bus Powertrain Technologies. Energies 2018, 11, 2160 .

AMA Style

Samuel Rodman Oprešnik, Tine Seljak, Rok Vihar, Marko Gerbec, Tomaž Katrašnik. Real-World Fuel Consumption, Fuel Cost and Exhaust Emissions of Different Bus Powertrain Technologies. Energies. 2018; 11 (8):2160.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Samuel Rodman Oprešnik; Tine Seljak; Rok Vihar; Marko Gerbec; Tomaž Katrašnik. 2018. "Real-World Fuel Consumption, Fuel Cost and Exhaust Emissions of Different Bus Powertrain Technologies." Energies 11, no. 8: 2160.

Journal article
Published: 01 October 2016 in Energy Conversion and Management
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ACS Style

Tine Seljak; Brane Širok; Tomaž Katrašnik. Advanced fuels for gas turbines: Fuel system corrosion, hot path deposit formation and emissions. Energy Conversion and Management 2016, 125, 40 -50.

AMA Style

Tine Seljak, Brane Širok, Tomaž Katrašnik. Advanced fuels for gas turbines: Fuel system corrosion, hot path deposit formation and emissions. Energy Conversion and Management. 2016; 125 ():40-50.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Tine Seljak; Brane Širok; Tomaž Katrašnik. 2016. "Advanced fuels for gas turbines: Fuel system corrosion, hot path deposit formation and emissions." Energy Conversion and Management 125, no. : 40-50.

Journal article
Published: 01 January 2016 in Waste Management
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Presented paper deals with adaptation procedure of a microturbine (MGT) for exploitation of refuse derived fuels (RDF). RDF often possess significantly different properties than conventional fuels and usually require at least some adaptations of internal combustion systems to obtain full functionality. With the methodology, developed in the paper it is possible to evaluate the extent of required adaptations by performing a thorough analysis of fuel combustion properties in a dedicated experimental rig suitable for testing of wide-variety of waste and biomass derived fuels. In the first part key turbine components are analyzed followed by cause and effect analysis of interaction between different fuel properties and design parameters of the components. The data are then used to build a dedicated test system where two fuels with diametric physical and chemical properties are tested - liquefied biomass waste (LW) and waste tire pyrolysis oil (TPO). The analysis suggests that exploitation of LW requires higher complexity of target MGT system as stable combustion can be achieved only with regenerative thermodynamic cycle, high fuel preheat temperatures and optimized fuel injection nozzle. Contrary, TPO requires less complex MGT design and sufficient operational stability is achieved already with simple cycle MGT and conventional fuel system. The presented approach of testing can significantly reduce the extent and cost of required adaptations of commercial system as pre-selection procedure of suitable MGT is done in developed test system. The obtained data can at the same time serve as an input for fine-tuning the processes for RDF production.

ACS Style

Tine Seljak; Tomaž Katrašnik. Designing the microturbine engine for waste-derived fuels. Waste Management 2016, 47, 299 -310.

AMA Style

Tine Seljak, Tomaž Katrašnik. Designing the microturbine engine for waste-derived fuels. Waste Management. 2016; 47 ():299-310.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Tine Seljak; Tomaž Katrašnik. 2016. "Designing the microturbine engine for waste-derived fuels." Waste Management 47, no. : 299-310.

Journal article
Published: 27 May 2012 in Applied Energy
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The paper reports foremost the results of a successful combustion of an innovative lignocellulosic biofuel in a gas turbine. The fuel was processed through liquefaction of lignocellulosic materials with polyhydroxy alcohols in an acid catalyzed reaction. The liquefaction process features: high efficiency, high liquid yields and inexpensive, easily available process equipment. For the purpose of this analysis the following were developed: an experimental gas turbine with internal combustion chamber, a preheated pressurized fuel supply system with swirl-air fuel injector and a heat exchanger to obtain high primary air temperatures. The paper gives results on the emissions of CO, THC, NOx and soot. For the purpose of benchmarking the turbine was also run on diesel fuel. The paper presents analyses of the underlying phenomena with which it aims to provide guidelines for improvements in the fuel processing and in the experimental equipment. It has been shown that direct utilization of this innovative lignocellulosic biofuel gives promising results. Although the CO and THC emissions are higher compared to the benchmark diesel results it has been shown that both emissions decrease with increased turbine inlet temperature and with the increased fuel preheat temperature, due to a very high viscosity of the fuel. It is additionally shown that NOx emissions are low and comparable to those of the diesel fuel, whereas soot emissions are very low for both fuels.

ACS Style

Tine Seljak; Samuel Rodman Oprešnik; Matjaž Kunaver; Tomaž Katrašnik. Wood, liquefied in polyhydroxy alcohols as a fuel for gas turbines. Applied Energy 2012, 99, 40 -49.

AMA Style

Tine Seljak, Samuel Rodman Oprešnik, Matjaž Kunaver, Tomaž Katrašnik. Wood, liquefied in polyhydroxy alcohols as a fuel for gas turbines. Applied Energy. 2012; 99 ():40-49.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Tine Seljak; Samuel Rodman Oprešnik; Matjaž Kunaver; Tomaž Katrašnik. 2012. "Wood, liquefied in polyhydroxy alcohols as a fuel for gas turbines." Applied Energy 99, no. : 40-49.