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Aurélien Arnaubec
Underwater Systems Unit, IFREMER, Centre Méditerranée, La Seyne sur Mer Cedex, France

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Journal article
Published: 10 July 2020 in Current Robotics Reports
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This paper addresses the benefits and challenges of mixed reality (MR) for the exploration of deep-sea environments with remotely operated vehicles. The approach is twofold: virtual reality (VR) let the scientist explore the environment via a visual 3D model, overcoming limitations of local perception. Augmented reality (AR) concepts are designed in order to improve environment perception and interaction. The key to such concepts is the implementation of 3D visual geo-referenced terrain models from the imaging feedback gathered by the vehicle exploring its unknown surroundings. Image processing, underwater vehicle navigation, and user-friendly displays for robotic intervention are addressed in an integrated concept. A broad development programme carried out at the French Institute for Ocean Science, IFREMER, is described and illustrates technical topics and use cases. 3D perception derived from camera vision is shown to enable AR concepts that will significantly improve remote exploration and intervention in unknown natural environments. Cumulative geo-referenced 3D model building is in the process of being taken to reliable functioning in real-world underwater applications, accomplishing a milestone change in the capacity to view and understand the obscure and inaccessible deep-sea world.

ACS Style

Matheus Laranjeira; Aurélien Arnaubec; Lorenzo Brignone; Claire Dune; Jan Opderbecke. 3D Perception and Augmented Reality Developments in Underwater Robotics for Ocean Sciences. Current Robotics Reports 2020, 1, 123 -130.

AMA Style

Matheus Laranjeira, Aurélien Arnaubec, Lorenzo Brignone, Claire Dune, Jan Opderbecke. 3D Perception and Augmented Reality Developments in Underwater Robotics for Ocean Sciences. Current Robotics Reports. 2020; 1 (3):123-130.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Matheus Laranjeira; Aurélien Arnaubec; Lorenzo Brignone; Claire Dune; Jan Opderbecke. 2020. "3D Perception and Augmented Reality Developments in Underwater Robotics for Ocean Sciences." Current Robotics Reports 1, no. 3: 123-130.

Journal article
Published: 14 November 2019 in ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
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Improvements in structure-from-motion techniques are enabling many scientific fields to benefit from the routine creation of detailed 3D models. However, for a large number of applications, only a single camera is available for the image acquisition, due to cost or space constraints in the survey platforms. Monocular structure-from-motion raises the issue of properly estimating the scale of the 3D models, in order to later use those models for metrology. The scale can be determined from the presence of visible objects of known dimensions, or from information on the magnitude of the camera motion provided by other sensors, such as GPS. This paper addresses the problem of accurately scaling 3D models created from monocular cameras in GPS-denied environments, such as in underwater applications. Motivated by the common availability of underwater laser scalers, we present two novel approaches which are suitable for different laser scaler configurations. A fully unconstrained method enables the use of arbitrary laser setups, while a partially constrained method reduces the need for calibration by only assuming parallelism on the laser beams and equidistance with the camera. The proposed methods have several advantages with respect to existing methods. By using the known geometry of the scene represented by the 3D model, along with some parameters of the laser scaler geometry, the need for laser alignment with the optical axis of the camera is eliminated. Furthermore, the extremely error-prone manual identification of image points on the 3D model, currently required in image-scaling methods, is dispensed with. The performance of the methods and their applicability was evaluated both on data generated from a realistic 3D model and on data collected during an oceanographic cruise in 2017. Three separate laser configurations have been tested, encompassing nearly all possible laser setups, to evaluate the effects of terrain roughness, noise, camera perspective angle and camera-scene distance on the final estimates of scale. In the real scenario, the computation of 6 independent model scale estimates using our fully unconstrained approach, produced values with a standard deviation of 0.3%. By comparing the values to the only other possible method currently usable for this dataset, we showed that the consistency of scales obtained for individual lasers is much higher for our approach (0.6% compared to 4%).

ACS Style

Klemen Istenič; Nuno Gracias; Aurélien Arnaubec; Javier Escartín; Rafael Garcia. Automatic scale estimation of structure from motion based 3D models using laser scalers in underwater scenarios. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 2019, 159, 13 -25.

AMA Style

Klemen Istenič, Nuno Gracias, Aurélien Arnaubec, Javier Escartín, Rafael Garcia. Automatic scale estimation of structure from motion based 3D models using laser scalers in underwater scenarios. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. 2019; 159 ():13-25.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Klemen Istenič; Nuno Gracias; Aurélien Arnaubec; Javier Escartín; Rafael Garcia. 2019. "Automatic scale estimation of structure from motion based 3D models using laser scalers in underwater scenarios." ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 159, no. : 13-25.

Journal article
Published: 07 September 2019 in Remote Sensing
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Rapid developments in the field of underwater photogrammetry have given scientists the ability to produce accurate 3D models which are now increasingly used in the representation and study of local areas of interest. This paper addresses the lack of systematic analysis of 3D reconstruction and navigation fusion strategies, as well as associated error evaluation of models produced at larger scales in GPS-denied environments using a monocular camera (often in deep sea scenarios). Based on our prior work on automatic scale estimation of SfM-based 3D models using laser scalers, an automatic scale accuracy framework is presented. The confidence level for each of the scale error estimates is independently assessed through the propagation of the uncertainties associated with image features and laser spot detections using a Monte Carlo simulation. The number of iterations used in the simulation was validated through the analysis of the final estimate behavior. To facilitate the detection and uncertainty estimation of even greatly attenuated laser beams, an automatic laser spot detection method was developed, with the main novelty of estimating the uncertainties based on the recovered characteristic shapes of laser spots with radially decreasing intensities. The effects of four different reconstruction strategies resulting from the combinations of Incremental/Global SfM, and the a priori and a posteriori use of navigation data were analyzed using two distinct survey scenarios captured during the SUBSAINTES 2017 cruise (doi: 10.17600/17001000). The study demonstrates that surveys with multiple overlaps of nonsequential images result in a nearly identical solution regardless of the strategy (SfM or navigation fusion), while surveys with weakly connected sequentially acquired images are prone to produce broad-scale deformation (doming effect) when navigation is not included in the optimization. Thus the scenarios with complex survey patterns substantially benefit from using multiobjective BA navigation fusion. The errors in models, produced by the most appropriate strategy, were estimated at around 1 % in the central parts and always inferior to 5 % on the extremities. The effects of combining data from multiple surveys were also evaluated. The introduction of additional vectors in the optimization of multisurvey problems successfully accounted for offset changes present in the underwater USBL-based navigation data, and thus minimize the effect of contradicting navigation priors. Our results also illustrate the importance of collecting a multitude of evaluation data at different locations and moments during the survey.

ACS Style

Klemen Istenič; Nuno Gracias; Aurélien Arnaubec; Javier Escartín; Rafael Garcia. Scale Accuracy Evaluation of Image-Based 3D Reconstruction Strategies Using Laser Photogrammetry. Remote Sensing 2019, 11, 2093 .

AMA Style

Klemen Istenič, Nuno Gracias, Aurélien Arnaubec, Javier Escartín, Rafael Garcia. Scale Accuracy Evaluation of Image-Based 3D Reconstruction Strategies Using Laser Photogrammetry. Remote Sensing. 2019; 11 (18):2093.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Klemen Istenič; Nuno Gracias; Aurélien Arnaubec; Javier Escartín; Rafael Garcia. 2019. "Scale Accuracy Evaluation of Image-Based 3D Reconstruction Strategies Using Laser Photogrammetry." Remote Sensing 11, no. 18: 2093.