This research focuses on the automation of an existing structural health monitoring system of a bridge using the BIMification approach. This process starts with the Finite Element Analysis (FEA) of an existing bridge for the numerical calculations of static and dynamic parameters. The validation of the FE model and existing SHM system was carried out by the field load testing (Static and dynamic) of the bridge. Further, this study tries to fill the research gap in the area of automatic FE model generation by using a novel methodology that can generate a BIM-based FE model using Visual Programming Language (VPL) scripts. This script can be exported to any FE software to develop the geometry of the FE model. Moreover, the SHM devices are deployed to the Building Information modelling (BIM) model of the bridge to generate the BIM-based sensory model (as per the existing SHM system). In this way, the BIM model is used to manage and monitor the SHM system and control its sensory elements. These sensors are then linked with the self-generated (Internet of Things) IoT platform (coded in Arduino), developing a smart SHM system of the bridge. Resultantly, the system features visualisation and remote accessibility to bridge health monitoring data.

The paper sheds light on the process of creating and validating the digital twin of bridges, emphasizing the crucial role of load testing, BIM models, and FEM models. At first, the paper presents a comprehensive definition of the digital twin concept, outlining its core principles and features. Then, the framework for implementing the digital twin concept in bridge facilities is discussed, highlighting its potential applications and benefits. One of the crucial components highlighted is the role of load testing in the validation and updating of the FEM model for further use in the digital twin framework. Load testing is emphasized as a key step in ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the digital twin, as it allows the validation and refinement of its models. To illustrate the practical application and issues during tuning and validating the FEM model, the paper provides an example of a real bridge. It shows how a BIM model is utilized to generate a computational FEM model. The results of the load tests carried out on the bridge are discussed, demonstrating the importance of the data obtained from these tests in calibrating the FEM model, which forms a critical part of the digital twin framework.

This article describes a case of using remote sensing during a static load test of a large bridge, which, because of its location, belongs to a critical city infrastructure. The bridge in question is the longest tram flyover in Poland. This is an extradosed-type concrete structure. It conducts a long tram line over 21 other active lines of an important railway station in the center of Cracow. The diagnostic of such bridges involving the load test method is difficult. Traditional, contact measurements of span displacements are not enough anymore. In such cases, remote sensing becomes an indispensable solution. This publication presents an example of using the close-range radar remote sensing technique of ground-based radar interferometry. However, the cross-sections of the huge bridge were observed using several methods. The aim was to confirm the conditions and efficiency of radar displacement measurements. They were therefore traditional contact measurements using mechanic sensors conducted, if possible, to the bottom of the span, for precise leveling and measurement using electronic total station. Comparing the results as well as the discussion held demonstrated the fundamental advantages of remote sensing methods over the other more traditional techniques.

Effective placement and compaction of the concrete mixture within the spans of prestressed bridges are essential for the proper anchoring and prestressing of tendons. The high density of reinforcement and location of the cable ducts present significant challenges, increasing the risk of void formation and structural irregularities, which can lead to failures during the prestressing process. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) emerges as a pivotal non-destructive testing method for diagnosing such complex prestressed structures. Utilizing high-frequency electromagnetic waves, GPR accurately detects and maps anomalies within hardened concrete, enabling precise identification of defect locations and their dimensions. The detailed imaging provided by GPR facilitates the development of targeted repair strategies and allows for the exclusion of concrete voids through selective invasive inspections in designated boreholes. This study presents the use of GPR for the investigation of anomalies and damage in prestressing tendons of a newly built concrete bridge. It underscores the critical role of GPR in enhancing the diagnostic and maintenance programs for prestressed bridge structures, thereby improving their overall integrity and longevity.

The paper describes an experiment involving a comparison of a few selected techniques for measuring the displacements of points on the span and pylon of the large cable-stayed bridge. It presents the measuring equipment and the process of static and dynamic tests. The results obtained from several measuring methods including the interferometric radar were compared and summarised. The experiment showed that in the case of large bridges, like tested cable-stayed structure, the best method is non-contact measurements like interferometric radar which is the least sensitive to the distance from a target. It allows the use of higher sampling frequency and at the same time requires relatively little preparation work.

This article presents the research on the mechanical characteristics of concrete in the construction of three concrete bridges. A system of recording the internal temperature of concrete and automatic control of laboratory ovens was used for specimen curing. This allowed the specimens to be cured under conditions similar to those occurring in the structure. Before the construction, reference blocks were used to define similar curing conditions. Maximum setting temperatures ranged from 47.6 °C to 62.0 °C and had a favorable effect on the properties of the concrete at an early age. For concretes with the use of CEM I cement, after 3 days of curing, the strength obtained was up to 8.2 MPa (23%) higher than that for specimens cured under standard conditions. The modulus of elasticity was higher up to 4.9 GPa (21%). For concrete with the use of CEM III cement, these differences were 26.9 MPa (174%) and 10.3 GPa (64%), respectively. After 7 days of curing, the results were close to each other and after 14, 28, and 56 days, higher values were obtained for specimens cured under standard conditions. The value of the modulus of elasticity of concrete was determined using the direct method according to Eurocode and the standard A method. A test load of the bridge was carried out to verify the modulus values obtained from laboratory tests. The highest consistency (99%) between the theoretical deflections and those measured in the test load was achieved when using the stabilized modulus values obtained on specimens cured under structure conditions in the FEM model. The research confirms the necessity of determining the mechanical characteristics of concrete with taking into account the curing conditions of concrete in the structure. A procedure for determining the mechanical properties of concrete for the correct construction of a bridge is proposed. These results can also be used in the development of a digital twin for bridge management.