Background: This paper presents the trend analysis of temperature and the effect of climate variation in the city of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The paper seeks to provide up-to-date information for the better management of climate change in the city. The analysis is based on the temperature difference in the city over two stations—Bole and Entoto. The overall purpose of this study is to investigate the possible trend of temperature variation as well as the effect of climate change in the study area.Method: The Mann-Kendall (MK) trend test and Sen's slope estimate were employed to find the nature of the temperature trend and significance level in the city.Results: It was found that the MK2/MK3 statistic (Z) value for minimum, maximum and average temperatures for Bole station are 6.21/5.99, 2.49/2.6, and 6.09/6.14 respectively. The positive Kendall's Z value shows an upward trend and implies an increasing trend over time. This indicates a significant increase in the trend at a 5% level of significance since the significance level (alpha) is greater than the computed p-value (0.05 > p-values (0.0001)). Whereas for Entoto station, the MK1 statistic (Z) results are 1.64 for minimum, while the MK2/MK3 static (Z) are 0.71/0.65 for the maximum, and 0.17/1.04 for average temperature, and this positive value shows an indicator of an increasing trend. However, the increase is not significant at the 5% significant level since the computed p-value is larger than the significant level (alpha = 0.05).Conclusions: There is a tendency of temperature increments in Bole station. This could be due to the influence of climate change which can lead to weather extremes in the capital city. Therefore, the study recommends that the variability of temperature needs further monitoring technique, and there is a need to consider the increasing temperature trend to minimize its effects on human health.

Background: The city of Addis Ababa is under rapid development and there are enormous construction activities along with rapid urbanization, and industrialization. These anthropogenic actions combined with population growth rate are affecting the water demand of the city. The overall purpose of this study is to model water supply and demand of the city and to identify potential water management strategies that supports the sustainable development goal number six (SDG6)—clean water and sanitation. Methods: We employed the Water Evaluation and Planning system (WEAP) modelling framework to analyze different scenarios for water demand and supply. The scenarios include population growth, living standard, as well as other supply and demand strategies. Results: For the modelling period, the reference scenario shows unmet water demand increases by around 48%, from 208 to 307 million cubic meter in 2015 and 2030 respectively. High population growth rate and high living standard scenarios have a great negative impact on the water supply system. Conclusions: Satisfying the future water demand of Addis Ababa will depend on the measures which are taken today. The integrated water management practices such as reuse of water and the selected future scenarios are proposed to decrease and manage the unmet water demand of the city. Hence, future predicted scenarios which is the combination of the external factors (i.e. population growth rate and living standard) and water management strategies were considered. From the analyzed scenarios, optimistic future strategies will support the management of the existing water supply and demand system of the city. Similarly, in the integrated management strategies scenario, it was assumed that measures were taken at both the demand and supply side to improve the efficiency of water in the entire chain. Thus, if the water sector professionals and other concerned bodies consider the selected scenarios, it will go a long way to solve the water shortage problem in the city, and this will also help to promote sustainable water management.

This retrospective study was aimed to examine the distribution of some physicochemical parameters and its health impact in selected drinking water sources of Ethiopia. The study used 983 water samples collected from different regions of the country, and have been tasted in the Environmental Health Laboratory, Ethiopian Public Health Institute, from 2003 to 2011. The samples were collected from eight regions plus two administrative cities of the country and classified based on the source type as spring, well, and tap water. The physicochemical parameter analysis was executed based on standard method. Microsoft Excel and IBM SPSS Statistical software were used for the statistical analysis of median and graph. The median result indicates that some values are within the acceptable range (PH, magnesium, chloride and sodium from spring and tap water), but, there are some measured values in some regions which are out of the recommended limit, (total hardness and calcium in spring, tap and well water). On the other hand, very high Sodium and chloride concentration were recorded in spring, tap, and well water sources of the region such as Somali, Afar, and Oromia. Those water sources that do not conform to National Standard will result in public health problem in long time exposure. Therefore, the local water authority shall strengthen local water quality monitoring and control system as well as risk assessment and management mechanisms.

In the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples’ Region of Ethiopia, improved water is the main source of water for household purposes. Access to improved water closer to their homes benefits the community in many ways. It improves their health status, saves their time and energy, and improves their productivity in jobs and education they are engaged in. However, due to natural and human activities, improved water sources do not always deliver good quality of water. It can be contaminated by different pathogenic microorganisms and chemicals. The result indicated that 44.7% and 50.9% of the samples were contaminated with Escherichia coli and enterococci respectively, and from the sanitary condition survey, 57.6% of the water sources exhibited from intermediate- to very high-risk level. And the risk priority matrix identifies 95 (27.9%) samples with high risk and 54 (15.9%) of the samples with very high risk. The main risks identified at those unsafe water sources were that the drainage canals were blocked with mud, grass, leaves, and stones; animals drinking the overflow water and grazing in the proximity of water sources and feces such as cow dung were observed; inadequate protection of water sources such as absence of fences and diversion ditches; and stagnant water near the source. The study conducted in the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples’ Region has clearly indicated that people may be at risk of being exposed to pathogens in half of the improved water sources when used for drinking based on the microbial indicator data or the sanitary inspection risk score. Though no correlation resulted from water quality and sanitary condition of sources, the risk priority matrix did enable prioritization of 54 very high-risk-level water sources for urgent targeted interventions from a total of 340 improved drinking water sources. From this, targeted interventions, improving water management practices, identifying and implementing effective water treatment options, providing sustainable energy sources for the supply of continuous water, and implementing climate resilience water safety planning, are recommended.

Access to water and sanitation are a major issues for many countries, especially for low- and middle-income nations like Ethiopia. The study aims to identify trends in the use of drinking water and sanitation services using Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) ladders and to assess the impact of demographic factors on that use. A time trend analysis for water and sanitation services was carried out using JMP ladders using household data from the Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey (EDHS). Likewise, factors affecting the coverage of water and sanitation service ladders were also determined using a multivariate logistic regression analysis. According to a recent survey, the basic drinking water service trend increased significantly from 18% in 2000 to 57% in 2019 by 217%. In contrast, surface water use declined from 31% in 2000 to 12% in 2019 by 61%. Despite the overall coverage of basic sanitation services grew by 900% (or nine times) from 1% in 2000 to 10% in 2019, the coverage of basic sanitation services decreased by 25% from 8% in 2011 to 6% in 2016. Furthermore, the practice of open defecation decreased by 67% from 81% in 2000 to 27% in 2019. In this study, the availability of drinking water and sanitation services are influenced by many demographic factors. The wealth quantile was used as an example since it has a major impact on the water and sanitation service ladders. Similarly, the age of households’ heads difference significantly affects sanitation but has little effect on water service. The essential trend of water and sanitation services increased significantly. Several factors influencing the progression of water and sanitation service ladders have been discovered. As a result, households should replace the unimproved sanitation facilities with improved sanitation facilities and encourage hand-washing habits to reduce health risks associated with poor sanitation. Furthermore, the effect of demographic factors should be considered in the development of strategies to increase access to drinking water and sanitation services.

Background: Open defecation is a significant global challenge, impacting public health, environmental sanitation, and social well-being, especially in low- and middle-income countries like Ethiopia. It is the second-largest cause of disease burden worldwide by facilitating the spread of germs that cause diarrhea diseases. Studies examining open defecation practices are insufficient, especially in areas implementing Ethiopia’s Geshiyaro project. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the status of open defecation practice and associated factors in the study area. Method: A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted from June to July 2023. The total number of households included in this study was 7995. A structured questionnaire and observational checklist were used to collect data. Descriptive and multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed using STATA version 16. Results: The study found that 16.5% of households practiced open defecation. The following factors were significantly associated with the occurrence of open defecation: residence (AOR = 1.56, 95% CI: 1.26-1.92), education (AOR = 0.59, 95% CI: 0.49-0.72), age (AOR = 0.53, 95% CI: 0.41-0.69), knowledge on diarrhea prevention (AOR = 1.32, 95% CI: 1.17-1.50), marital status (AOR = 1.61, 95% CI: 1.32-1.97), and awareness creation about WASH services (AOR = 1.96, 95% CI: 1.71-2.25). On the other hand, no significant association was observed between the occurrence of open defecation and the household’s income (AOR = 1.07, 95% CI: 0.93-1.23) or the head of household sex (AOR = 0.94, 95% CI: 0.78-1.12). Conclusion: Open defecation remains a critical public health concern in Ethiopia’s Geshiyaro project sites. Various factors influencing this practice have been identified. Targeted interventions are needed to enhance access to safe sanitation facilities and promote awareness of WASH services, aligning with SDG 3 target 3, and SDG 6 target 2.