Tick infestation is the major problem for animal health that causes substantial economic losses, particularly in tropical and subtropical countries. To better understand the spatial distribution of tick species and risk factors associated with tick prevalence in livestock in Pakistan, ticks were counted and collected from 471 animals, including 179 cattle, 194 buffaloes, 80 goats and 18 sheep, on 108 livestock farms in nine districts, covering both semi-arid and arid agro-ecological zones. In total, 3,807 ticks representing four species were collected: Hyalomma anatolicum (n = 3,021), Rhipicephalus microplus (n = 715), Hyalomma dromedarii (n = 41) and Rhipicephalus turanicus (n = 30). The latter species is reported for the first time from the study area. Rhipicephalus microplus was the predominant species in the semi-arid zone, whereas H. anatolicum was the most abundant species in the arid zone. The overall proportion of tick-infested ruminants was 78.3% (369/471). It was highest in cattle (89.9%), followed by buffaloes (81.4%), goats (60.0%) and sheep (11.1%). The median tick burden significantly differed among animal species and was highest in cattle (median 58), followed by buffaloes (median 38), goats (median 19) and sheep (median 4.5). Female animals had significantly higher tick burdens than males and, in large ruminants, older animals carried more ticks than younger animals. The intensity of infestation was significantly lower in indigenous animals compared to exotic and crossbred cows. Analysis of questionnaire data revealed that the absence of rural poultry, not using any acaricides, traditional rural housing systems and grazing were potential risk factors associated with a higher tick prevalence in livestock farms. Absence of rural poultry, not performing acaricide treatments, traditional rural housing systems and grazing were important risk factors associated with higher tick prevalence in livestock farms. Age, gender, breed and animal species significantly affected the intensity of tick infestation. This report also describes the presence of R. turanicus in the Punjab Province of Pakistan for the first time. The outcomes of this study will be useful in the planning of integrated control strategies for ticks and tick-borne diseases in Pakistan.

Background Crimean‐Congo haemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) is a tick‐borne zoonotic pathogen. It causes a fatal haemorrhagic disease in humans. Hard ticks, in particular Hyalomma spp., are considered to function as reservoir as well as vector for CCHFV. Methods A cross‐sectional study was conducted in the province of Balochistan, Pakistan, from September to November 2017. Ticks were collected from cattle, sheep and goats in livestock farms. The ticks were morphologically identified, followed by confirmation with molecular methods (PCR and sequencing). Furthermore, ticks were examined for CCHFV genomes (S segment) by a one‐step multiplex real‐time RT‐qPCR and positive samples were sequenced to determine the CCHFV genotype. Results In total, 525 of 529 livestock infesting adult ticks belonged to the genus Hyalomma, and 4 ticks to the genus Rhipicephalus (R. microplus 3x, R. turanicus 1x). In the genus Hyalomma, H. marginatum (28%), H. excavatum (26%), H. dromedarii (22%), H. anatolicum (16%) and H. scupense (8%) ticks were identified. Tick infestations were as follows: sheep 58%, goats 28% and cattle 14%. Four percent (20/525) of ticks were CCHFV genome‐positive and all genomes clustered in CCHFV genotype Asia 1. Among CCHFV positive ticks, 75% (15/20) were female and 25% (5/20) male. CCHFV genomes were most frequently detected in H. marginatum (30%, 6/20), followed by H. dromedarii (25%, 5/20), H. excavatum (20%, 4/20), H. anatolicum (20%, 4/20), and H. scupense (5%, 1/20). All CCHFV‐positive ticks were found on sheep. The largest number of CCHFV‐positive ticks were detected in the district of Kalat (60%, 12/20), followed by the districts of Quetta (30%, 6/20) and Killa Abdullah (10%, 2/20). Conclusions This study confirms the circulation of CCHFV in ticks in Balochistan, south‐western Pakistan. It is imperative to take effective tick‐control measures in this area, especially to control livestock tick infestations to prevent CCHF infections in humans.

Recent global changes have led to an increase in the spread of ticks and tick-borne diseases (TBDs) affecting domestic ruminants and humans, with an annual loss of US $13.9–$18.7 billion. The current study determined the perception and practices of livestock farmers regarding tick infestation. A total of 112 livestock farms were surveyed in Punjab, Pakistan, among which animals from 42 (37.5%) farms were infested with ticks. Only 28.6% (n = 32) of the dairy farmers were consulting veterinarians for ticks control, while 86.7% (n = 97) of the respondents did not consider biosecurity measures in the control of tick transmission. Most of the respondents, 71.4% (n = 80), did not consider manual tick removal from their animals (i.e., by hand, followed by physically crushing) as a risky practice for spreading zoonotic diseases. Improper disposal of bottles of acaricides in the farm drainage was also observed, putting the environment and aquatic life at risk. These wrong practices may contribute to high disease burdens and economic losses, increasing the possibility of transmission of zoonotic TBDs and pollution of the environment. Therefore, an integrated One Health approach is required for the control of TBDs through environmentally friendly approaches.

Ticks and tick-borne diseases (TTBDis) are a major constraint to the health and production of small ruminants in Pakistan. Despite being the subject of intermittent studies over the past few decades, comprehensive information on the epidemiology and control of TTBDis is lacking. Herein, we have systematically reviewed the current knowledge on TTBDis of small ruminants in Pakistan. Critical appraisal of the selected 71 articles published between 1947 to 2020 revealed that morphological examination had been the most widely used method for the identification of TTBDis in Pakistan. Tick fauna comprise at least 40 species, mainly belonging to Haemaphysalis, Hyalomma and Rhipicephalus. The prevalence of ticks is the highest in summer (June–September) and it is also higher in goats than sheep. Anaplasma, Babesia and Theileria spp. are the major tick-borne pathogens (TBPs), and their prevalence is usually higher in sheep than goats. Spatio-temporal distribution, genetic diversity and control of ticks and TBPs of small ruminants as well as the competence of tick vectors for various TBPs remain to be explored. Therefore, coordinated and focused investigations are required to fill knowledge gaps in these areas to maximise the health, production and welfare of small ruminants and minimise economic losses associated with TTBDis in Pakistan.